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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description
1. Mastery
Mastery refers to knowing, competence and proficiency. Stern 1987:346 provides a summary of four factors indicating having mastered a
language. Those factors are: a. The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language,
b. The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expressed by the language forms,
c. The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and
d. The creativity of language use. In this research, mastery is competence of defining and non-defining relative
clauses and of using them in writing. The researcher would like to measure the students’ competence of defining and non-defining relative clauses and their
ability in constructing complex sentences using defining and non-defining relative clauses. The students’ competence was indicated by four factors
provided by Stern 1987: 346. Then, in order to score the students’ answers, the researcher applies the
standard score in Sanata Dharma University. Here is the standard range of score in Sanata Dharma University.
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Table 1. Standard Range of Score in Sanata Dharma University Percentage of the
Obtained Points The Obtained Score
Level
80 - 100 8.00 – 10.00
Very Good A
70 - 79 7.00 – 7.99
Good B
56 - 69 5.60 – 6.99
Sufficient C
50 - 55 5.00 – 5.59
Insufficient D
0 - 40 0.00 – 4.99
Fail E
The students who obtain scores in the range 80 - 100 or 8.00 – 10.00 are in the level A which means very good. The students who obtain scores in the
range 7.00 – 7.99 or 7.00 – 7.99 are in the level B which means good. The students who obtain scores in the range 5.60 – 6.99 or 5.60 – 6.99 are in the level
C which means sufficient. The students who obtain score in the range 5.00 – 5.59 or 5.00 – 5.50 are in the level D which means insufficient. The students
who obtain scores in the range 0.00 – 4.99 or 0.00 – 4.99 are in the level A which means very good
2. Relative Clauses
According to Azar 1989:238, a relative clause, which is also called adjective clause, is “a dependent clause that modifies a noun”. Azar explains that
a dependent clause is “an incomplete sentence”, while an independent clause is a “a complete sentence” Azar, 1989:238. Barli Bram states that a simple
sentence minimally consists of “one subject and one predicate” and that “a simple sentence is an independent” Bram, 1995:39. Therefore, a simple
sentence that minimally has only one subject and one predicate is an independent clause. In addition, Azar 1989:238 also states that dependent clause have to be
connected to an independent clause. It can be concluded that a relative clause
12 needs a connector to connect to an independent clause. After connecting a
relative clause to an independent clause, we can construct a sentence, which is called a complex sentence.
In complex sentence using relative clause, the independent clause is called main clause and the dependent clause is called relative clause. In order to
connect main clause and relative clause, we use a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun begins the relative clause. It can be the subject of clause, the object of
verb in the clause, the object of preposition or a possessive Close, 1977: 52. It comes after the antecedent in the main clause. An antecedent is a noun phrase in
the main clause that the relative clause modifies Close, 1977: 51. That is why relative pronoun comes after the antecedent.
a. Defining and Non–Defining Relative Clauses
There are two kinds of relative clauses. These are defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses.
1 Defining relative clauses
A defining relative clause is a relative clause to modify a noun by giving some crucial information about the noun modified. Neuman 1981:34 states that
a defining relative clause explains the person or thing referred. It represent that the relative clause give the crucial information to make the meaning within the
sentence clear. The information adds some clues to create the clear meaning. For
example 1, the man who is standing at the door wants to speak to you
personally. It refers to that there are some men there and there is only one man
13 who is standing at the door. This man wants to speak personally. Therefore,
defining relative clauses give the information that makes the meaning clear,
unless it will be confusing. Another example 2, the bungalow we rented last summer was not as well equipped as the one we had the year before.
It has two defining relative clauses. The first relative clause is we rented last summer. The
second relative clause is we had the year before. Both relative clauses are contact clauses because they omit the objective relative pronouns. If not, they
should be whichthat we rented last summer and whichthat we had the year before.
2 Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clause is a relative clause which modifies a noun with the additional information about the noun modified. Neuman 1981:35
defines that non-defining relative clauses give additional information to modify the referred noun. A non-defining relative clause is written between commas. It
does not influence the meaning within the sentence. The meaning has been clear without the relative clause. Therefore, a relative clause is the additional
information. It is not really needed. Its existence or inexistence does not change
the meaning within the sentence. For example 3 Mr. James, the English teacher, came late yesterday
. It means that there is only one Mr. James in the school. He is an English teacher in that school. He came late yesterday.
Therefore, relative clause the English teacher is a non-defining relative clause that gives the additional information that does not really influence toward the
meaning within the main sentence.
14 In this research, the researcher is going to test the students’ mastery of
defining and non-defining relative clauses. Relative pronouns the researcher uses in the test are whom, which, that and
∅. Those relative pronouns are used only as a subject, object and object of preposition. Therefore, in the test, the
researcher uses four relative pronouns for three functions in relative clauses, whereas, the researcher does not provide relative adverbs when and where
because whom, which, that and ∅ can substitute both relative adverbs. Also
relative adverbs when and where function as adverbial of time and place that can be substituted by functions as subject, object and object of preposition. Besides
adverbial of time and place, the researcher does also not use relative pronouns functioning as possessive in order to avoid confusing choices that cause many
errors the students make.
b. Relative Pronouns
Close 1977:52 describes four types of relative pronouns; subject pronouns, object pronouns, object of preposition pronouns and possessive. Table
2 is the description of relative pronouns according to Close 1977:52.
Table 2. Relative Pronouns according to Close 1977:52 RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Function as aan
Defining Relative Clauses Non-Defining Relative
Clauses Personal Non-Personal
Personal Non-Personal
a. Subject who, that
which, that Who
which
b. Object whom, who, that
which, that whom
which
c. Object of preposition
to whom, whom, who,
that…to to which,
which, that…to
to whom, whom…to
to which, which…to
d. Possessive whose whose,
of which
Whose whose, of
which
15 In the table, Close 1977:52 explicitly explains that there are two types
of antecedent; personal and non-personal. Personal antecedents refer to people, whereas, non-personal antecedents refer to things. Besides explaining the
antecedents, Close 1977:52-55 describes the use of relative pronouns based on their position. There are four functions of relative pronouns in the table. They are
as a subject, as an object, as an object of preposition and as a possessive. Here is the description of relative pronoun usage based on their functions.
1 As a Subject
As a subject, we use three relative pronouns. Those relative pronouns are who, which and that. Here are the rules how those relative pronouns work.
a Who is used to modify personal antecedents both in defining and non- defining relative clauses,
b Which is used to modify non-personal antecedents both in defining and non- defining relative clauses, and
c That is used to modify for both personal and non-personal antecedents only in defining relative clauses.
Those three relative pronouns have the same function. The function is as a subject of the relative clause. It refers to the antecedent in main clause, then,
becomes the subject of relative clause. Therefore, it substitutes the antecedent’s function in the main clause into the subject of relative clause. Examples 4 and 5
describe how those relative pronouns work. Example 4:
I thanked the woman. She helped me.
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Ö I thanked the woman who helped me, or Ö I thanked the woman that helped me.
Example 5: The book is mine. It is on the table.
Ö The book which is on the table is mine. Ö The book that is on the table is mine.
2 As an Object
As an object, we apply relative pronouns who, whom, which, that and ∅ . The
following are the rules how those relative pronouns work. a Whowhom is used to modify personal antecedents both in defining and non-
defining relative clauses, b Which is used to modify non-personal antecedents in both defining and non-
defining relative clauses, c That is used to modify both personal and non-personal antecedents only in
defining relative clauses, and d
∅ Symbol of omission is also used for both personal and non-personal antecedents in both defining and non-defining relative clauses.
In the case of omission symbol, ∅ means that it is possible to omit the
relative pronouns functioned as an object in relative clause. This sign has the same aim as the relative pronoun in the bracket, as it is presented in Table 2. The
bracket means that the word or letter in the bracket can be omitted. Nonetheless, the omission does not change the meaning within the sentence. In the function as
17 an object, there is no any difference between relative clauses with relative
pronouns and relative clauses without relative pronouns. Then, those three four relative pronouns work as an object in relative
clause. They modify the antecedent in the main clause to be the object of verb in the relative clause. Here, the examples 6 and 7 draw how those relative pronouns
work as an object. Example 6:
The man was Mr. Jones. I saw him. Ö The man whom I saw was Mr. Jones.
Ö The man that I saw was Mr. Jones.
Ö The man ∅ I saw was Mr. Jones
Example 7: The movie was not very good. We saw it last night.
Ö The movie which we saw last night was not very good. Ö The movie that we saw last night was not very good.
Ö The Movie ∅
we saw last night was not very good. Examples 6 and 7 explain those relative pronouns are the objects of verb
in the relative clause. On both examples, that can be used to modify a noun, both people as personal antecedents and things as non-personal antecedents, which
are functioned as the object in relative clauses. Also, whom is usually used in writing, while, in speaking people usually use who. It also modifies a noun
referring people as personal antecedents functioning as the object in relative clauses
18 In relative clauses, those relative pronouns may be omitted and directly
continued to the relative clause without any relative pronoun as a connector. In other words, sometimes the relative pronouns are able to be omitted. This
relative clause is called a contact clause. Neuman 1984:32 states a contact clause is a defining relative clause that omits the objective relative pronoun
whom, that, or which. Relative clauses especially defining relative clauses without relative pronoun is called contact clause.
3 As an Object of Preposition As an object of preposition, we use seven relative pronouns. They are to
whom, to which, whowhom…to, which…to, which…to, that…to. Those relative pronouns always follow or are followed by preposition because those
relative pronouns represent the object of preposition. Each relative pronoun has its own rule. These are their rules.
a To preposition whom is used to modify personal antecedents either in defining or non-defining relative clauses,
b To preposition which is used to modify non-personal antecedents either in defining or non-defining relative clauses,
c Whowhom…to preposition is used to modify personal antecedents either in defining or non-defining relative clauses,
d Which…to preposition is used to modify non-personal antecedents in defining relative clauses,
e Which…to preposition is used to modify non-personal antecedents in non- defining relative clauses,
19 f That…to preposition is used to modify either personal or non-personal
antecedents in defining relative clauses, and g
∅ Symbol of omission is also used for both personal and non-personal antecedents in both defining and non-defining relative clauses.
In this function, as an object of preposition, relative pronouns in the bracket can be omitted. As explained in the previous function, bracket or
∅ show meaning that relative pronouns functioning as an objectobject of
preposition in the relative clauses can be omitted. Also, to in to whom, to which, whowhom…to, etc represents preposition. Therefore, to can be changed by
other prepositions such as about, of, in, under, at, etc. Moreover, those relative pronouns change the antecedent’s function in the main clause into the object of
preposition in the relative clause. Here are the examples how they work. Example 8:
She is the woman. I told you about her. Ö She is the woman about whom I told.
Ö She is the woman whom I told about. Ö She is the woman that I told about.
Ö She is the woman ∅ I told about.
Example 9: The music was good. We listened to it last night.
Ö The music to which we listened last night was good. Ö The music which we listened to last night was good.
Ö The music that we listened to last night was good.
20 Ö The music
∅ we listened to last night was good.
Examples 8 and 9 explain relative pronouns are the objects of preposition. On examples 8 and 9, mostly a preposition comes after subject and
verb because only very formal English places preposition in the beginning, before subject and verb in the relative clause Azar, 1995: 269. However,
relative pronouns that and who cannot immediately come after preposition because only relative pronouns which and whom who can follow the preposition.
4 As a Possessive In the last position, as a possessive, we apply two relative pronouns;
whose and of which. These are the rules to use them. a. Whose is used to modify both personal and non-personal antecedents either
in defining or non-defining relative clauses, and b Of which is used to modify non-personal antecedents either in defining or
non-defining relative clauses. In order to show possession, a relative clause uses whose and of which to
substitute the antecedents function in the main clause to be possessive function in relative clause. There two relative pronouns that substitute the possessive
pronouns; whose used for people and animal characters in the story, and of
which used for things and animals in general Neuman, 1981: 32. However,
relative pronoun of which is written after the noun modified and usually used in
non-defining relative clause. Here, examples 7 and 8 draw the use of relative
pronouns whose and of which as the possessive pronouns.
Example 10:
21 I know the man. His bicycle was stolen.
Ö I know the man whose bicycle was stolen. Example 11:
The student writes well. I read her composition.
Ö The student whose composition I read writes well. Example 12:
The table is so high. Its foot is almost broken. Ö The table, a foot of which is almost broken, is so high.
Examples 10 and 11 show that relative pronoun whose is the same as his, her, its, and other possessive pronouns. In relative clauses, whose cannot be
omitted and comes in the beginning of relative clause. Also, whose usually modifies people as personal antecedents, but sometimes it can modify animal
characters in a story. Example 12, while, shows a possession of things. It is the same as its in general. It is only used for things and animal in general as non-
personal antecedents. However, Azar 1999:277 combines object and object of preposition as
one type of relative pronoun, whereas, Close 1977:52 separates them. Also she introduces two relative adverbs that can modify and relate the antecedents to the
relative clauses. Those relative adverbs are when and where.
3. Errors
In teaching learning process, there are errors always occur during the process. Error is different from mistake. Ellis 1997:139 states that errors are
“deviation in usage which results from gaps in learner’s knowledge of the target
22 language” and mistakes are “deviation in usage that reflects learner’s inability to
use what they actually know the target language” Ellis, 1997:141. It means that errors occur because the learner does not really understand the correct forms and
mistakes are made by carelessness that actually the learner understands correct forms. However, in this research, the researcher only discusses errors in order to
find the students’ errors in defining and non-defining relative clauses. In order to discuss errors in depth, here are the definition and classification of error.
a. Definition of errors
According Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005:56, errors are defined based on two views, grammaticality and acceptability. In grammaticality, they cite that an
error is “a breach of the rule of the code”. They state that it depends on the view that “what particular variety of the target language is chosen as the code” Ellis
and Barkhuizen, 2005:56. It means that errors break the rules of a variety of a target language as a code. On the other side, based on the acceptability, Ellis and
Barkhuizen 2005:56 define that an error is “more dependent on the subjective evaluation of the researcher ...” and also “involves attempting to identify a
situational context ...” Ellis and Barkhuizen, 2005:56. It can be said that errors are dependable and based on the context used.
Because of those uncertainties of the distinction of grammaticality and acceptability, those theories were blurred. Then, Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005: 56
cite that errors refer to “a linguistic form or a combination of forms which, in the same context and under similar conditions of production, would, in all
23 likelihood, not be produced by speakers’ native speaker counterparts” Ellis and
Barkhuizen, 2005: 56. It is clearly that errors happen in the same context and condition of production and are unlike what native speaker counterparts produce.
In this research, the researcher searched the students’ linguistic forms that are produce unlikely as the native speaker counterparts produce defining and non-
defining relative clauses.
b. Classifications of errors
Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005:60 classify errors based on the system of category, which is named taxonomy. There are two kinds of taxonomy they
describe, linguistic taxonomy and surface structure taxonomy. 1 Linguistic Taxonomy
Linguistic taxonomy is drawn by descriptive grammar, which is famously called descriptive taxonomy. In English descriptive grammar or
descriptive taxonomy, a grammar includes: a General categories such as sentence structure, verb phrase, noun phrase,
preposition phrase, etc. b More specific categories such as:
1. Verb tenses e.g. simple present tense, simple past tense, etc. 2. Aspect e.g. perfective, progressive, etc.
3. Auxiliary verbs which are divided into primary e.g. is, am, are, etc and modal e.g. can, may, will, etc.
4. Other specific categories.
24 “Errors should be classified in terms of the target language categories that have
been violated rather than the linguistic categories used by learner” Ellis and Barkhuizen, 2005: 60. Therefore, errors are classified based on the violation
happening in the target language categories. Those errors are different from the linguistic categories the learner learns.
2 Surface Structure Taxonomy
Dulay, Burt, and Krasen 1982:150 that surface structure taxonomy is
drawn based on “the ways surface structures are altered” Then, based on surface structure taxonomy; they suggest four principles of the learner’s errors:
a Omission The errors come because of the omission of a form that should appear in
the construction of a sentence. For instance, the omission of auxiliary verb be in the sentence I beautiful. It should be I am beautiful.
b Addition The errors come because of the presence of a form that should not appear
in the construction of a sentence. It happens in these sub-categories:
1. Regulation, for instance she eated soto yesterday it should be she ate soto
yesterday.
2. Double marking, for instance she did not studied last night it should be she
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