29 first language will help the learning process. On the other hand, if it is low, the
first language might interfere or give negative transfer in the learning. As it is stated by James quoting Lado 1998:179 that the greater the difference between
the first language and language being learned, the greater the difficulty faced by the learners. He mentioned that there is solid evidence in this case when the first
language nonstandard dialect features get transferred to the language being learned.
Related to this, James 1998:182 stated that there are two options here. The first is that learners refer back to some universal grammar. The second is
when learners assume that the foreign language structure has the same setting as their first language.
Meanwhile in written misencodings, he 1998:137-138 mentioned three substypes. They are the use of an L1 phonographic rule which does not exist in
L2, the use of L1 grapheme which does exist in the L2 but with a different sound value, and use of an L1 grapheme that also exists in L2 but has different
distributional constraints in each language.
2.3.2 Intralingual Errors
Error analysis emphasizes that not all of the errors made by the second language learners come from the interference of the first language. Brook in Ellis
1993:159 described causes of errors made by the learners of a language in the following:
30 1 The learners do not know the structural pattern and so make random responds
2 The correct model has been insufficiently practiced 3 Distortion may be induced by the first language
4 The students may follow a general rule which is not applicable in particular instance.
Richards 1971:174-179 mentioned that intralingual errors are those which reflect the general characteristics of rule learning, such as faulty
generalization, incomplete application of rules, and failure to learn conditions under which rules apply.
It is believed that when a learner has started to acquire parts of the new language being learned, there will be more intralanguage transfer within the target
language Brown, 2007:264. It means that errors appear in this stage are those related to the system of the language being learned.
Overgeneralization is defined by Jakobovits as: ‘the use of previously available strategies in new situations. … In second
language learning… some of these strategies will prove helpful in organising the facts about the second language, but others, perhaps due to
superficial similarities, will be misleading and inapplicable’ Richards, 1971:174
This involves examples in which learners make new yet unnatural structure based on their experience of other structure in the target language. It is
also connected with redundancy reduction, especially with items which are contrasted in the grammar of the language but do not carry significant and
