• English achievement is known after students studied the subject. And it can be measured by their examinations results. In simple
definition, it is the studying result of the students.
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter contains the description of theoretical framework of relevant theories concerning the correlational study between intelligence and students’
English achievement. It consists of the concepts of intelligence, they are: the origin and meaning of intelligence, the intelligence and individuality, the
intelligence and it is measurement, and the multiple intelligences. And the concepts of English learning achievement, they are: the theories of learning,
teacher, students, School, achievement, English, and English learning achievement.
A. The Concepts of Intelligence
1. The Origin and Meaning of the Intelligence.
The fundamental understanding of intelligence term can be conceived with the words; understanding, knowledge, and ability. The words above are the
representative words and have close correlation with the term intelligence. In other words, those words above are the basic understanding and the basic
interpretation and also the basic concepts of the intelligence. Like what Hans J. Eysenck said in his book “A New Look Intelligence”;
Intelligence comes from two Latin words: intellegentia and ingenium. It means something like “understanding” and “knowledge”; the latter “natural
disposition” or “ability”. These are two meanings of the term intelligence that have always adhered to it. Fundamental to intelligent behavior is an
underlying disposition that enables us to reason, to think abstractly, to learn. Raymond Cattel, one of the famous names in intelligence research,
labelled these two aspects of intelligence “fluid” and “crystallized ability.” “Fluid Ability” refers to the dispositional concepts, the ability to acquire
many kind of knowledge. “Crystallized ability” refers to the knowledge
7
already gained. Scientists will recognize the same sort of differences as that between potential and kinetic energy.
1
Cattel also stated that
2
: “fluid intelligence is the ability to learn and perform- that is measured by
tests of speed, energy, and quick adaptation to new situations- for example, tests of memory span, ability to copy symbols, and ability to solve abstract
problems. Crystallized intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge -is measured by tests of vocabulary, social reasoning, and problem solving-“.
Cattel suggests that fluid intelligence represents abilities useful in learning and performance, whereas crystallized intelligence measures knowledge –
what has actually been learned. Psychologist cannot agree on the nature and definition of the intelligence,
and thus obviously have no idea what actually is. In 1998, Mark Snyderman and Stanley Rothman published a book, The IQ Controversy, which
contained the answers of over 600 experts in the field of intelligence testing, educational psychology, developmental psychology, behavioral genetics,
sociology and education, cognitive science, counseling psychology, occupational psychology to questions about intelligence. These are indeed
manifold, but to concentrate on one or the other does not imply disagreement on the nature of intelligence itself. In other word, complete agreement on
everything is not necessary to make a concept meaningful.
3
Some considers topics before moving on to the intellectual competences. First, what are the prerequisites for intelligence? Second, what are the actual
criteria by which we can judge whether a candidate competence ought to be a circle of intelligence?.
4
According to Gardner, the prerequisites for intelligence have to consider a set of skill of problem solving, the ability to
1
Hans J. Eyesenck, A New Look Intelligence, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1999 p. 14
2
Richard R. Bootzin, Gordon H. Bower, Jennifer Crocker, and Elizabeth Hall, Psychology Today 7
th
Ed, New York: McGraw Hill, Inc, 1991 p. 317
3
Hans J. Eyesenck, Op.cit., p. 7
4
Howard Gardner, Frames Of Mind, 2
nd
Ed, London: Fontana Press, 1993 p. 60
recognize, use of sensory system, and also in human intercourse do not qualify.
Gardner mentions there are eight criteria or signs most crucial for the identification of intelligence that have to be considered, they are; a a
potential isolation by brain damage. b The existence of idiots’ savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals. c An identifiable core operation
or set of operations. d A distinctive developmental history, along with a definable set of expert performance. e An evolutionary history and
evolutionary plausibility. f Support from experimental psychological test. g Support from psychometric findings. h Susceptibility to encoding in a
symbol system
5
. The experts who tried to define the term of intelligence, from its meaning,
the nature, or the constituents of intelligence, are influenced with the general consensus of the aspect of mental development. The consensus became the
basic essentials as the definition and meaning of intelligence. The aspects are as follows; first, mental development involves a widening
of intellectual and temporal horizons from those stimuli immediately impinging upon the child to those more remote in time and space. Second,
mental development involves an increase in the ability to deal with the abstract and with symbols in manipulating one’s environment. Third, mental
development involves an increase in the ability to concentrate for progressively longer periods of time. Forth, mental development involves a
decline in daydreams and makes believe. Fifth, mental development involves an increase in memory. Sixth, mental development involves an increase in
reasoning ability.
6
Spearman and Jones 1950 mention three fundamental doctrines of human ability.
7
First, monarchic, which views intelligence as a single ability. Like
5
Howard Gardner, op.cit., p. 76
6
George J. Mouly, Psychology For Effective Teaching, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc, 1964 p. 186
7
Mike Anderson, The Development Of Intelligence, United Kingdom: Psychology Press, 1999 p. 23
Spearman postulated that intelligence is composed of a general factor g which underlies all mental functions and a multiple of s factors. Spearman
postulated g as a form of mental energy permeating all mental operations; it would be most unlikely for a person who is relatively lacking in general
intelligence to be particularly capable in a specific field.
8
According to Spearman, all intellectual activity was dependent primarily upon the G
factors, which is common to all so called mental activity. Beside G factors spearman postulated specific factors, called S factors, one or more of which
would be involved primarily in different task. Thus spearman indicated two factors, a G factors and s factors.
9
Second, oligarchic, which views intelligence as consisting of several broad factors. This is in same way with what Thurstone’s theory of the primary
mental abilities. He conceives of intelligence as made up of a number of mental abilities in the relative amount of any one of which people would not
only differ from one another but also within themselves.
10
Third, anarchic, which views intelligence as consisting of many specific abilities.
11
This is relevance with theory of multiple factors by Thorndike. According to Thorndike, intelligence is made up of a multitude of specific
and independent neural connections. In example; intelligence is simply the summation of all the abilities involved in mental acts, each separate and
independent of the others.
12
The term intelligence that we was used today, was used by the ancient Romans in the same way and even earlier the Chinese elaborated ideas about
intelligence and it was clearly defined by Confucius. Confucius regarded it as being related to having a “top brain” and a quick mind, a reference to speed
of mental functioning. Confucius made the distinction between tian zi, the
8
George J. Mouly, Psychology For Effective Teaching, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc, 1964 p. 190
9
James M. Sawrey, and Charles W. Telford, Educational Psychology, 4
th
Ed, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc, 1973 p. 612
10
George J. Mouly, op.cit., p. 191
11
Mike Anderson, op.cit., p. 23
12
George J. Mouly, op.cit., p. 190
mental ability given by heaven, and shuan chang, the result of learning through training and education, an adumbration of theories of nature and
nurture.
13
Many views and convinces arose in the development of intelligence. Several of the expert of this field said that intelligent is abilities to learn and
to understand the facts and the problems in order to solve it. Like Gates who refers to intelligence as a composite or organization of abilities to learn, to
grasp broad and subtle facts, especially abstract facts, with alertness and accuracy, to exercise mental control, and to display flexibility and ingenuity
in seeking the solution of problems.
14
Also Termasn said an individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to carry on abstract thinking.
15
In the same word with additional opinion, Thorndike conceive intelligent not only the ability to understand and to solve the problem, he also defined
intelligence is a good response to peace and receive the problem based on the situation and experience. In other words, he defined intellect in general as the
power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact, and may separate it according as the situation is taken in gross or abstractly and also
according as it is experienced directly or thought of.
16
In further ideas, the experts said that intelligence is a capacity in a personal side or a mental people to adapt himself in condition and new situation. Like
what Freeman conceived intelligence is to be somewhat more inclusive capacity than is implied when it is used as a name for our present tests.
17
Rudolf Pintner thought of intelligence as the ability of the individual to adapt himself adequately to relatively new situation in life.
18
Herbert Woodrow said intelligence is the capacity to acquire capacity.
19
Boynton defined intelligence as “an inherited capacity of the individual which is manifested
13
Hans J. Eyesenck, op.cit., p. 11
14
George J. Mouly, op.cit., p. 189
15
Leona E. Tyler, Intelligence Some Recurring Issues, Oregon: An Insight Book, 1969 p. 8
16
Ibid., p. 5
17
Leona E. Tyler, op.cit., p. 10
18
Leona E. Tyler, op.cit., p. 13
19
Leona E. Tyler, op.cit., p. 21
through his ability to adapt and to reconstruct the factors of his environment in accordance with his group.”
20
Intelligence is regarded as a potential capacity.
21
Thurstone defined intelligence as judge in every way life contains at least three psychologically differentiable components: a the capacity to inhibit an
instinctive adjustment, b the capacity to redefine the inhibited instinctive adjustment in the light of imaginably experienced trial and error, c the
volitional capacity to realize the modified instinctive adjustment into overt behavior to the advantage of the individual as a social animal.
22
Intelligence also the abilities to show his or her knowledge in behavior order. Like what Henmon said in the ordinary acceptance of the term has
been defined by Lester F Ward to be “intellect coupled with the product of its operation,” or in the other words, intelligence is intellect plus knowledge.
23
The evidence in behavior abilities it is correlate to a biological mechanism, therefore intelligence is also seems to be a biological mechanism by which
the effects of a complexity of stimuli are brought together and given a somewhat unified effect in behavior.
24
Colvin defined as general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life.
25
Intelligence not only the mental abilities to grasp the problem in new situation or condition and to solve it directly, rightly, or abstractly with
evidence in behavior order according to the thinking or experience, it also helps people to achieve their goal, like what Baron said that the abilities that
constitute intelligence are generally useful in helping people achieve their goals, no matter what their goals may be.
26
20
J. McV. Hunt, Intelligence And Experience, New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1961 p. 10
21
James M. Sawrey and Charles W. Telford, op.cit., p. 424
22
Leona E. Tyler, op.cit., p. 19
23
Leona E. Tyler, op.cit., p. 16
24
Leona E. Tyler, op.cit., p. 18
25
Leona E. Tyler, op.cit., p. 11
26
Richard R. Bootzin, op.cit., p. 310
2. The Intelligence and Individuality.
Based on the explanation above, intelligence is the capacity of mental abilities to grasp the problem in new condition or situation in order to solve it
directly, correctly and effectively in human live. In other words, the existence of intelligent person becomes important in the social life. Every society
features its ideal human being.
27
The virtuosos of the intellectual person according to Gardner, will become the symbol analyst and the master of change.
28
A symbol analyst can sit for hours in front of number and words and readily discern meaning in this ticket
of symbols. This person can then make reliable, useful projection. A master of change readily acquires new information, solves problems, and adjusts
easily to changing circumstances. Sigmund Freud and William James considered the capacity for self growth
to be an important one and they were sympathetic to the idea of personal intelligence. Sigmund Freud was interested in the self as located in the
individual and was preoccupied with an individual’s own knowledge of himself. He added the key to health was self-knowledge and a willingness to
confront the inevitable pains and paradoxes of human existence. In contrast, James’s interest and feel much more on the individual’s relationship to the
outside community.
29
The considerations of the personal intelligence capacity are the access to one’s own feeling life and the ability to notice and make distinctions among
other individuals.
30
The access to one’s own feeling life it called intra personal intelligence. Intra personal intelligence involved chiefly in an
individual’s examination and knowledge of his own feeling. The ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals called interpersonal
intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence looks outward, toward the behavior, feelings, and motivation of others.
27
Howard Gardner, Intelligence Reframed, New York: Basic Books, 1999 p. 1
28
Howard Gardner, Ibid p. 2
29
Howard Gardner, op.cit., p. 238
30
Howard Gardner, op.cit., p. 240
Personal intelligence it is relevance to personal abilities. Intelligence or abilities of people differ from one another. This field became the subject of
the psychology of ability. The psychology of ability is a branch of psychology that examines how
and why people differ from one another. Cronbach 1957 identified two distinct disciplines of psychology. First, comprises areas such as social,
development, cognitive, physiological and behavioral psychology. Second, the branch is that of individual differences, clinical, and some occupational
psychology, which focuses on how and why people differ from one another.
31
The psychology of individual differences is traditionally divided into four main areas. First is the psychology of motivation, which tries to explain what
drives people to behave in certain ways. Second is psychology of mood or emotion, which considers feelings. Third is personality psychology which
tries to explain both what people do and the way that they do it through personal styles such as anxiety or sociability. Finally is the psychology of
abilities, which examines how well individuals perform problem solving task, attempts to understand how many talents are necessary to explain individual
differences in problem solving behavior and seeks to understand why and how individual differences in these abilities emerge in the first place.
32
The psychology of abilities is important for several reasons; first, it is interesting in its own right. Second, our culture places considerable emphasis
on individual differences in abilities. If we know how these abilities develop then we could perhaps develop educational strategies to maximize each
child’s potential. Third, the assessment of abilities is one of psychology’s greatest success stories. There is a need for psychology to consider both
within subject factors individual differences and between subject factors situations, stimuli to predict how individuals will behave.
33
31
Colin Cooper, Intelligence And Abilities, London: Routledge, 1999 p. 2
32
Colin Cooper, Ibid., p. 3
33
Colin Cooper, Ibid., p. 3
From the statements above, the writer concludes that the intelligence is the ability to face any kinds of situation with consideration based on the
knowledge and experience.
3.
The Intelligence and Its Measurement.
Sir Francis Galton a half-cousin of Charles Darwin conceived of intelligence as a general ability, largely inherited, and best measured in terms
of speed of mental processes, as for instance the speed of reaction to a sudden stimulus. He convinced that general cognitive ability was by far the most
important influence on a person’s life achievement.
34
He was interested in the measurement of intelligence because he hoped to increase it through selective breeding of human being, which he called
eugenics. If we had a good intelligence test, Galton reasoned, we could use it to pick out people who ought to be encouraged to reproduce. In a few
generations, the overall level of intelligence would increase.
35
Binet is the father of all modern tests of intelligence. Alfred Binet was born much later than Galton in 1857, but died in the same year. He was
appointed a member of commission by the French minister of public instruction to recommend what should be done about the education of
subnormal children in the schools of Paris. In response he developed a test which became the first scale for the measurement of intelligence; it appeared
in 1905, with later revision in 1908 and 1911. Binet convinced that intelligence is embodied in the total personality, and in fact regarded
“intelligence” merely as the average of a large number of faculties, such as memory, verbal abilities, numerical ability. Those were relatively
independent, and should be measured separately. He did more than simply measure and tabulates individual differences.
36
.
34
Hans J. Eyesenck, op.cit., p. 17
35
Richard R. Bootzin, Gordon H. Bower, Jennifer Crocker, and Elizabeth Hall, op.cit., p. 310
36
Hans J. Eyesenck, op.cit., p. 22
Intelligence has to express in terms of level of development in comparison to the typical age at which a test would be passed. This intelligence
measurement called mental age
37
which was based on average abilities for a given age group.
In 1912 German psychologist William Stern noticed that Binet’s two-year standard led to higher percentages of children being classified as subnormal
as the children got older. Lewis Terman, at Stanford University in 1916, decided to multiply this ratio by 100 to get a simple way of expressing a
child’s performance, hich he called the intelligence quotient, or IQ. The IQ was therefore the ratio of mental age MA to chronological age CA ,
multiplied by 100.
38
The computation of the IQ of the child involves only simple arithmetic, even when either or both the MA and the CA are fractional. IQ would
compute as follows:
39
The concept of mental age gave an indication of intelligence level achieved without regard to age.
40
It means that if a child of age ten, passed the test commonly passed by an eight-year-old, the child was said to have a
mental age of eight. If a child of seven passed the test commonly passed by an eight-year-old, the child was said to have a mental age of eight. If a child
of seven passed the test commonly passed by nine-year-olds, he or she was said to have a mental age of nine.
37
Richard R. Bootzin, Gordon H. Bower, Jennifer Crocker, and Elizabeth Hall, op.cit., p. 311
38
Richard R. Bootzin, Gordon H. Bower, Jennifer Crocker, and Elizabeth Hall, op.cit., p. 311
39
George J. Mouly, op.cit., p. 193
40
James M. Sawrey, and Charles W. Telford, op.cit., p. 610
With enrollment the child by chronological age CA, all the children in the one room and one group are close to the same age, and it is easy to
assume that they should be able to learn about the same things.
41
People who construct test of IQ are very careful to construct these with a specific audience in mind, and make sure that for that audience questions are
appropriate, and all the elements well known. Binet argued that there were three methods for measuring intelligence.
42
The first was the medical method, which looks at the anatomical, physiological, and pathological signs of inferior intelligence; to explore links
between DNA and behavior. The second is the pedagogical method, which relies on school-acquired knowledge to measure intelligence, which is
regarded as the sum of acquired knowledge. The third is the psychological method, which attempts to rely on direct observation and measurement of
intelligent behavior. In the 1920s, Thusrtone laid down the theoretical requirement or criteria
for measurement in the social sciences
43
: 1 items should be located on a continuum, or scale; 2 the locations of the items should be invariant across
different populations who are to be measured by items; and 3 the locations of items on the continuum should satisfy the requirement of additives. The
first criterion implies that the items reflect an underlying or latent trait which is unindimensional at some level of scale. The second criterion implies the
item locations should not be affected by the properties of the people whose responses were used to locate the items on the continuum: the relative order
of the items should remain invariant and independent of the people. The third criterion means that a continuum should form an equal-interval scale which
provides a consistent unit of measurement across the operating range of the variable of interest.
41
William C. Morse, and G. Max Winge, Psychology And Teaching, 3rd, Ed, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1962 p. 334
42
Hans J. Eyesenck, op.cit., p. 17
43
Mike Anderson, op.cit., p. 25
From the statements above, there are many kinds of measurement for IQ, but in simple word the pattern to measure the IQ is by knowing people’s ages
divided by people’s chronological in answering the questions and tests of the IQ test.
4. The Multiple Intelligences
Multiple intelligences are branches of intelligences that exist in people’s ability.
Jhon Carroll has published an 800-page book, Human Cognitive Abilities. He divides his factors up into domains; domains of language, of reasoning, of
memory and learning, visual perception, auditory perception, idea production, cognitive speed, and psychomotor abilities; clearly many of these are rather
peripheral to what we mean by “intelligence.” Howard Gardner has asserted that there are multiple intelligences, of
which he recognizes seven. These are verbal and mathematicho-logical, spatial, musical, personal intelligence interpersonal skills, intrapsychic
capcity, and kinesthetic ability.
44
Logical and mathematical intelligence like a scientist and mathematicians, the components of intelligence are sensitivity to, and capacity to discern,
logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning. Linguistics intelligence like a poet and journalists they have sensitivity to the
sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words, sensitivity to different functions of language. Musical intelligence like a composer and violinist they have
abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness. Naturalist intelligence like a naturalist,
botanist, hunter they have sensitivity to natural objects, like plants and animals; making fine sensory discriminations. Spatial intelligence like
navigator, sculptor, they have a capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions. Bodily
or kinesthetic intelligence like a dancer and athlete they have ability to
44
Hans J. Eyesenck, op.cit., p. 17
control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully. Interpersonal intelligence like therapist, salesperson, they have capacities to discern and
respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people. Intra personal intelligence like person with detailed, accurate
self-knowledge, they have access to one’s own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and draw on them to guide behavior; knowledge of
one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences. In multiple intelligences there are capacities inventory.
45
In logical mathematical intelligence there are; recognizing abstract patterns, reasoning
inductively, reasoning deductively, discerning relationships and connections, performing complex calculations, reasoning scientifically.
In verbal linguistic intelligence there are; analyzing own use of language, remembering, using humor, explaining, teaching, learning, understanding
syntax and meaning of words, and convincing someone to do something. In intrapersonal there are; concentrating, being mindful, evaluating own
thinking, being aware of and expressing various feelings, understanding self in relationships to other, thinking and reasoning on higher levels.
In interpersonal they are; creating and maintaining synergy, seeing things from others ‘perspectives, cooperating within a group, noticing and making
distinctions among others, communicating verbally and nonverbally. In musical-rhythmic they are; sensing tonal qualities, creating melodies
and rhythms, being sensitive to sounds, using “schemas” to hear the music, understanding the structure of music.
In naturalist they are; communicating with nature, caring for and interacting with living creatures, showing sensitivity to nature’s flora,
recognizing and classifying species, growing things, appreciating the impact of nature.
In visual spatial they are; perceiving objects accurately, recognizing relationships between objects, representing something graphically,
45
David Lazear, Multiple Intelligence Approaches to Assessment, Chicago: Zephyr Press, 1999 p. 20
manipulating images, finding one’s way in space, forming mental pictures, imagining.
In bodily-kinesthetic they are; connecting mind and body, using mimetic abilities, improving body functions, controlling movements previously
learned, controlling voluntary movements, expanding whole body’s awareness.
B. The Concepts of English Learning achievement
1. The theories of learning.
This is one of the most important issues in teaching, as to be effective we need to try and teach in a way that reinforces how people naturally learn.
The first major theory of learning is called behaviorism that was developed in the 1920s and 1930s by psychologists such as Skinner, Pavlov, and
Thorndike. This theory emphasizes change in behavior as the main outcome of the learning process. Behavioral theorist concentrate on directly observable
phenomena using a scientific method borrowed from the nature sciences. Learning according to behaviorists, is something people do in response to
external stimuli. The basic mechanism through which this happens is conditioning. According to behaviorists there are two different types of
conditioning
46
: 1.
Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. An example of this comes from Pavlov’s experiment with
dogs. 2.
Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple
feedback system. Rewards and punishments are an important part of behaviorist learning
theory. Behavior is influenced by its consequences, but it is influenced by its antecedents as well, thus creating the A Antecedents-B Behavior-C
consequences chain.
46
M. Ray Lorce, Psychology of education, New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1965, p.176-177
In contrast to the behaviorists’, cognitive development, the tools which children use to think change, leading children of different age to possess a
different view of the world. One of the main influences on children’s cognitive development is what called by maturation, the unfolding of
biological changes that are genetically programmed into us at birth. A second factor is activity. Increasing maturation leads to increase in children’s ability
to act on their environment, and to learn from their actions. A third factor in development is social transmission, learning from others.
According to Piaget 2001, learning occurs in three stages as discuss below
47
: 1.
The sensory-motor stage 0-2 years. The baby knows the world through actions and sensory information. The child begins to
understand causality in time and space. 2.
The pre-operational stage 2-7 years. In this stage, children take the first step from action to thinking, by internalizing action. The ability to
think in symbols remains and the child only think in one direction, and also the see the world and the experiences of others from their own
standpoint.
3. The concrete operational stage 7-12 years. The basic characteristics
of this stage are; the recognition of the logical stability of the physical world, the realization that elements can be changed or transformed and
still retains their original characteristics, and the understanding that these changes can be reversed.
Learning is a matter that related with life. Life is a lesson. By learning, people know how to live. Because of learning is a process that happens for a
long time and through many steps, it will make someone change in certain aspect in his own self. For instance, get dress, writing on notebook, ride the
motorcycle, etc. they can be done after learning. According to Henry Smith, “learning is the acquisition of new behavior or
the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.
48
This opinion is on one word with what David in his book Educational
47
M. Ray Lorce, Ibid., P.179-180
48
Henry P Smith, Psychology in teaching, USA: Prentice-Hall, inc, 1962, p.260
