PORNOGRAPHY IN JAPAN (ABRAMSON &

PORNOGRAPHY IN JAPAN (ABRAMSON &

HAYASHI, 1984; DIAMOND & UCHIYAMA, 1999), Japan is an interesting and unusual case study of a society with wide

availability of sexual media but very low rape rates Sexual themes in art

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and society go back centuries to ancient fertility religious objects and wood block prints called ukiyo-e. Although some restriction and censorship occurred after the Meiji Restoration in 1868 and even more under the U.S. occupation that began after World War II ended in 1945, sexuality continued to be a strong theme of Japanese society and one not associated with shame or guilt. Although there are specific restrictions on showing pictorial representations of pubic hair or adult genitalia anywhere in Japan, there is no restriction of sexual media to certain types of magazines, bookstores, or theaters, as occurs in the United States. Thus nudity, bondage, and rape occur regularly on commercial television and popular movies and magazines, including in advertising. Films often portray very vivid scenes of rape and bondage. In recent years, a market has surged for magazines featuring pictures of naked schoolgirls. It is legal in Japan for men to have sex with children over 12, and some schoolgirls earn extra money from prostitution or catering to men’s sexual fantasies in Tokyo’s image clubs. Some have attributed men’s rising interest in child sexuality to their feeling increasingly threatened by women’s growing sophistication and demands for equality (Lolita in Japan, 1997).

Why, then, is the incidence of reported rapes so much lower in Japan than elsewhere (2.4 per 100,000 vs. 34.5 in the United States, 10.1 in England, and 10.7 in Germany)? Abramson and Hayashi (1984) argued that the answer may lie in cultural differences. Japanese society emphasizes order, obligation, cooperation, and virtue, and one who violates social norms is the object of shame. Also, sex is not compartmentalized relative to other segments of society as it is in the United States. Others have suggested that rape in Japan is more likely to

be group instigated, perpetrated by juveniles, and greatly underreported by victims (S. Goldstein & Ibaraki, 1983).

Firmly establishing a causal relationship between the availability of sexually explicit media and the frequency of rape is extremely difficult, due to the many other relevant factors that cannot be controlled, including the different varieties of sexual material, changes in social consciousness about reporting sexual assaults, and changing norms sanctioning such behavior. Although some have argued from the evidence that an increase in sex crimes follows greater availability of pornography (Court, 1984) and others have argued that there is no such demonstrated relationship (Kutchinsky, 1991), there has been no recent support for an explanation that greater availability of sexually explicit media decreases the rate of sex crimes. See Bauserman (1996) for a review.

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Catharsis

Another alleged effect of media sex is catharsis, that emotional release so important to psychodynamic models of personality (e.g., Freud). Applied to sex, the catharsis argument says that consuming media sex relieves sexual urges, with the magazine or video acting (perhaps in conjunction with masturbation) as a sort of imperfect substitute for the real thing. A catharsis argument was used some years ago by civil libertarians to support appeals for lessening restrictions on sexually explicit material (e.g., Kutchinsky, 1973). The research support for catharsis as a function of viewing media sex is meager if not totally nonexistent, however (Bushman, Baumeister, & Stack, 1999; Comstock, 1985; Final Report, 1986). In fact, exposure to sexual media typically energizes the sex drive and leads one to do more to fulfill it, not less. Still, however, as we saw with the violence research, the popular belief in this scientifically discredited process remains strong.

Prevailing Tone

The perceived reality of media sex and the effects of sex in media are not entirely due to the nature of the material itself. They also depend on the context of the material and the context in which the person sees it. This diverse collection of variables is called the prevailing tone (Eysenck & Nias, 1978). The nature of this prevailing tone can make an enormous difference in the experience of consuming sexually explicit media.

One of the relevant variables of the prevailing tone is the degree of playfulness or seriousness of the material. Even a highly explicit and potentially controversial topic may not be particularly controversial when presented seriously For example, a documentary on rape or a tastefully done TV drama on incest may be considered perfectly acceptable, whereas a far less explicit comedy with the same theme may be highly offensive and considered too sexual. What is really the concern in such cases is not the sex as such, but rather the comedic treatment of it. A second factor in the prevailing tone is the artistic worth and intent. We react very differently to a sexually explicit drawing by Picasso versus one in Hustler magazine. Shakespeare, Chaucer, The Song of Solomon in the Bible, and serious sex manuals like The Joy of Sex are seen to have serious literary or didactic intentions, and thus the sex therein is considered more acceptable and even healthy. One interesting issue in this regard is how to respond to something of clear artistic worth that was written at a time when standards differed from what they are today. For example, should Rhett Butler’s forcing his attentions on Scarlett O’Hara in Gone with the Wind be seen as rape or as the noncontroversial romantic moment that it appeared to be in 1939? In fact, the theme of a man continuing to press his sexual desires against a woman’s

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clearly stated wish that he stop, today legally defined as rape, was a common theme in films in the mid-twentieth century

The relation and integration of sex to the overall plot and intent of the piece is another part of the prevailing tone. A sex scene, even a mild and nonexplicit one, may be offensive if it appears to be thrown in merely to spice up the story but having no intrinsic connection to it. Something far more explicit may find greater acceptance if it is necessary and central to the plot. Sex scenes in a story about a prostitute may be much less gratuitous than comparable scenes in a story about a female corporate executive. Sex, of course, is not the only common gratuitous factor in media; for example, contemporary TV shows and movies frequently insert car chases and rock video segments only tangentially related to the plot.

The context of the viewing also influences the experience and effect of sex in the media. Watching an erotic film may elicit different reactions, depending on whether you watch it with your parents, your grandparents, your children, by yourself, in a group of close same-sex friends, or with your spouse. It can be seen as more or less erotic or arousing and more or less appropriate or offensive.

The cultural context is also a factor. Some cultures do not consider female breasts to be particularly erotic or inappropriate for public display We recognize these cultural differences and thus, at least after the age of 14, most readers do not consider topless women from some exotic culture in National Geographic photos to be the slightest bit erotic, sexual, or inappropriate. Even in Western culture, standards have changed. In much of the 19th century, knees and calves were thought to be erotic, and the sight of

a bare-kneed woman would be as scandalous, perhaps even as sexually arousing, as would a topless woman today. As societies go, North America overall is a bit more conservative in allowing sexual expression than many Western European or Latin American cultures but far more permissive than most Islamic and East Asian cultures.

Finally, the expectations we have affect our perception of the prevailing tone. Sex is less offensive and shocking if it is expected than if it appears as

a surprise. Seeing a photo of an orgy may be less shocking in Hustler magazine than if one were to suddenly encounter it in Newsweek. The stimulus may be the same, but the perceived experiential reality of the fact of seeing it would differ considerably in the two cases.

We now examine that potent combination of sex and violence in the media: sexual violence.

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