Governance and policy LESSONS LEARNED AND THE WAY FORWARD

56 Mexico, lack of leadership that represents the interests of the community has resulted in a lack of confidence and trust among community members Robledo, Gasca-Leyva and Fraga, 2013. Based on the existing literature e.g. Kassam, Subasinghe and Phillips, 2011, further study should be conducted to examine the potential and limitations of farmers organizations as a means to consolidate small-scale seaweed farmers. Special attention should be focused on how organizational and governance structures of different seaweed farming entities farmers groups, producer associations, cooperatives, farm enterprises, etc. affect their socio-economic performance. Trading intermediaries It is often taken for granted that more direct value chains between farmers and processors i.e. less intermediation tend to be in the interest of farmers as well as the entire industry. However, it should be clarified that reducing intermediaries does not eliminate the various services provided by trading agents e.g. consolidation, quality control, credit provision, risk-sharing, and information exchange but rather transfer them to the shoulders of farm enterprises, farmers organization, andor processors. Then, the question is under what situations such internalization would be more efficient than independent commercial trading agents. Further study should be conducted to enhance understanding of the socio- economic performance of trading agents in the seaweed industry. A good place to start could be a comparative analysis of countries’ different experiences e.g. export licensing in Solomon Islands, the free-entry policy in the United Republic of Tanzania, and the highly specialized and multilayer trading system in the Philippines 31 .

6.5 Governance and policy

Although most major carrageenan seaweed farming countries, except the Philippines, have no specific regulations on seaweed farming, detrimental environmental externalities were not cited in the case studies as a major problem of seaweed farming, nor were conflicts or disputes over natural resources among seaweed farmers or between seaweed farming and other activities. However, with increasing competition over coastal resources, it is important, especially for countries with advanced seaweed farming e.g. Indonesia, to establish formal legal frameworks and specific regulations to ensure the sustainable development of the sector. Notwithstanding a private-sector driven activity, the socio-economic performance of seaweed farming is affected, to a great extent, by public policy and governance structure. However, there is a general lack of information and knowledge on the design and implementation of public policies and their impacts on the socio-economic performance of seaweed farming. Further study in this regard is needed. 31 In the Philippines seaweed industry, the number of trading agents was about half that of the number of seaweed farmers Hurtado, 2013. References Ask, E. 2001. Creating a sustainable commercial Eucheuma cultivation industry: the importance and necessity of the human factor. In A. Chapman, R. Anderson, V. Vreeland, I. Davison, eds. 17th International Seaweed Symposium, pp. 13–18. Oxford University Press. Barrington, K., Chopin, T. Robinson, S. 2009. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture IMTA in marine temperate waters. In D. Soto ed.. Integrated mariculture: a global review. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 529. Rome, FAO. pp. 7–46. Bixler, H. Porse, H. 2011. A decade of change in the seaweed hydrocolloids industry. Journal of Applied Phycology, 23: 321–335. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources BFAR. 1983. Rules and regulations governing the gathering and farming of seaweeds. Fisheries Administrative Order No. 146. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources, Republic of the Philippines. also available at www.fao.orgfisherylegalframework nalo_philippinesen. Buschmann, A., Varela, D., Cifuentes, M., Hernández-González, M., Henríquez, L., Westermeier, R. Correa, J. 2004. Experimental indoor cultivation of the carrageenophytic red alga Gigartina skottsbergii. Aquaculture, 241: 357–370. Espaldon, M.V., Sumalde, Z., Rebancos, C., Villanueva J. Mercene-Mutia, M. forthcoming. Indicators for measuring the contribution of small-scale aquaculture to sustainable rural development: Philippines pilot case studies. In M.G. Bondad-Reantaso, P. Bueno T. Pongthanapanich, eds. Indicator system for assessing the contribution of small-scale aquaculture to sustainable rural development: selected case studies. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 545. Rome, FAO. Ferrer, M.S.R. 2002. National seaweed program. In A.Q. Hurtado, N.G. Guanzon Jr, T.R. de Castro-Mallare M.R.J. Luhan, eds. Proceedings of the National Seaweed Planning Workshop held on August 2–3, 2001, pp. 27–33. Aquaculture Department, SEAFDEC. Tigbauan, the Philippines. Fröcklin, S., de la Torre-Castro, M., Lindström, L., Jiddawi, N.S., Msuya, F.E. 2012. Seaweed mariculture as a development project in Zanzibar, East Africa: A price too high to pay? Aquaculture, 356–357: 30–39. Gan, K.T. 2003. Strategic alliances in the tropical Asian seaweed industry: implications for development in Asia. Adelaide, Australia, University of South Australia. 89 pp. Hayashi, L., Hurtado, A.Q., Msuya, F.E., Bleicher-Lhonneur, G. Critchley, A.T. 2010. A review of Kappaphycus farming: prospects and constraints. In A. Israel, R. Einav J. Seckbach, eds. Seaweeds and their role in globally changing environments, pp. 255–283. Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology. Hishamunda, N., Ridler, N., Bueno, P., Satia, B., Kuemlangan, B., Percy, D., Gooley, G., Brugere, C. Sen, S. 2012. Improving aquaculture governance: what is the status and options? In R.P. Subasinghe, J.R. Arthur, D.M. Bartley, S.S. De Silva, M. Halwart, N. Hishamunda, C.V. Mohan P. Sorgeloos, eds. Farming the waters for people and food: Proceedings of the Global Conference on Aquaculture 2010, pp. 233–264. Rome, FAO, and Bangkok, NACA. 896 pp. Hurtado, A. Q. 2013. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in the Philippines. In D. Valderrama, J. Cai, N. Hishamunda N. Ridler, eds. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 91-113. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO. 204 pp. 58 Juanich, G. L. 1998. Manual of running water fish culture 1. Eucheuma spp. ASEAN SF88Manual No. 2. ASEANUNDPFAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 25 pp. Kapetsky, J.M., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J. Jenness, J. forthcoming. A global assessment of potential for offshore mariculture development from a spatial perspective. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 549. Rome, FAO. 181 pp. Kassam, L., Subasinghe, R. Phillips, M. 2011. Aquaculture farmer organizations and cluster management: concepts and experiences. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 563. Rome, FAO. 90 pp. Krishnan, M. Narayanakumar, R. 2013. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in India. In D. Valderrama, J. Cai, N. Hishamunda and N. Ridler, eds. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 163-185. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO. 204 pp. Kronen, M. 2013. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in the Solomon Islands. In D. Valderrama, J. Cai, N. Hishamunda and N. Ridler, eds. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 147-161. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO. 204 pp. Luxton, D. 1999. Potential for Eucheuma “cottonii” seaweed farming in Samoa. South Pacific Aquaculture Development Project Phase II, Field document 17, GCPRAS116 JPN. Suva, Fiji, FAO. 33 pp. Mao, Y., Yang, H., Zhou, Y, Ye, N, Fang, J. 2009. Potential of the seaweed Gracilaria lemaneiformis for integrated multi-trophic aquaculture with scallop Chlamys farreri in North China. Journal of Applied Phycology, 21: 641–656. McHugh, D.J. 2003. A guide to the seaweed industry. Fisheries Technical Paper No. 441. Rome, FAO. 105 pp. McHugh, D.J. 2006. The seaweed industry in the Pacific islands. ACIAR Working Paper No. 61. Canberra, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. 55 pp. Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources MFMR. 2009. Solomon Islands aquaculture development plan, 2009-2014. Noumea, New Caledonia, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources – Solomon Islands and Secretariat of the Pacific Community. 54 pp. Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism MNRT. 2005. Seaweed development strategic plan. Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania, University Printing Press. 47 pp. Msuya, F.E. 2009. Development of seaweed cultivation in Tanzania: the role of the University of Dar es Salaam and other institutions. EC FP7 Project. SARNISSA. 25 pp. Msuya, F.E. 2011. The impact of seaweed farming on the socio-economic status of coastal communities in Zanzibar, Tanzania. World Aquaculture, 423: 45–49. Msuya, F.E. 2013. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in the United Republic of Tanzania. In D. Valderrama, J. Cai, N. Hishamunda and N. Ridler, eds. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 115-146. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO. 204 pp. Msuya, F.E., Shalli, M.S., Sullivan, K., Crawford, B., Tobey, J. Mmochi, A.J. 2007. A comparative economic analysis of two seaweed farming methods in Tanzania. The Sustainable Coastal Communities and Ecosystems Program. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island and the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association. 27 pp. also available at www.wiomariculture.orgpubsCompSeaweedEconReport.pdf. Namuda, M. Pickering, T. 2006. Rapid survey techniques using socio-economic indicators to assess the suitability of Pacific Island rural communities for Kappaphycus seaweed farming development. Journal of Applied Phycology, 18: 241–249. Neish, I.C. 2008a. Structure and development of tropical red seaweed value chains with focus on the red algal galactan seaplants RAGS. SEAPlant.net Monograph No. HB2A 1108 V2 VC. Makassar, Indonesia. 47 pp. Neish, I.C. 2008b. Good agronomy practices for Kappaphycus and Euchema: including an overview of basic biology. SEAPlant.net Monograph No. HB2F 1008 V3 GAP. Makassar, Indonesia. 72 pp. Neish, I.C. 2008c. A ten-step functional framework for building ventures and alliances among Seaplant enterprises. SEAPlant.net Monograph No. HB2C 0808 V1 VA. Makassar, Indonesia. 28 pp. Neish, I.C. 2009. Tropical red seaweeds as a foundation for integrated multi-trophic aquaculture IMTA: four propositions and an action plan for this major opportunity in the Coral Triangle. SEAPlant.net Monograph No. HB2E 1209 V3 IMTA. Makassar, Indonesia. 43 pp. Neish, I.C. 2013. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in Indonesia. In D. Valderrama, J. Cai, N. Hishamunda and N. Ridler, eds. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 61-89. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO. 204 pp. Panlibuton, H., Porse, H. Nadela, E. 2007. Seaweedcarrageenan value chain assessment: final report. Study conducted for Seaplant.net initiative of IFC Advisory Services and for GTZ Philippines. 47 pp. also available at: http:bimp.huniomedia.comwp-content uploadsdownloads201202SW_Carrageenan-VCA-Report-July-2007.pdf. Pickering, T. 2006. Advances in seaweed aquaculture among Pacific island countries. Journal of Applied Phycology, 18: 227–234. Pickering, T., Skelton, P. Sulu, R. 2007. Intentional introductions of commercially harvested alien seaweeds. Botanica Marina, 50: 338–350. Ramachandran, C. 2012. “A sea of one’s own” A perspective on gendered political ecology in Indian mariculture. In Gender in Aquaculture and Fisheries: Moving the Agenda Forward. Asian Fisheries Science Special Issue, 25S: 17–28. Ridler, N., Wowchuk, M., Robinson, B., Barrington, K., Chopin, T., Robinson, S., Page, F., Reid, G., Szemerda, S., Sewuster, J. Boyne-Travis, S. 2007. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture IMTA: a potential strategic choice for farmers. Aquaculture Economics and Management, 111: 99–110. Robledo, D., Gasca-Leyva, E. Fraga, J. 2013. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in Mexico. In D. Valderrama, J. Cai, N. Hishamunda and N. Ridler, eds. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 185- 204. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO. 204 pp. Soto, D., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J. Hishamunda, N. eds. 2008. Building an ecosystem approach to aquaculture. FAOUniversitat de les Illes Balears Expert Workshop, 7–11 May 2007, Palma de Mallorca, Spain. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings No. 14. Rome, FAO. 221 pp. Sulu, R., Kumar, L., Hay, C. Pickering, T. 2003. Kappaphycus seaweed in the Pacific: review of introductions and field testing of proposed quarantine protocols. Noumea, Institute of Marine Resources, University of the South Pacific, Secretariat of the Pacific Community. 85 pp. also available at www.spc.intDigitalLibraryDocFAMEReports Sulu_04.pdf. Tinne, M., Preston, G. Tiroba, G. 2006. Development of seaweed marketing and licensing arrangements. technical report 1. Project ST 98009: Commercialisation of Seaweed Production in the Solomon Islands. Gillett, Preston and Associates. also available at http: bluesquid.netCOSPSICoSPSI20Market20Licence20Report.pdf . Vorley, B. Proctor, F. 2008. Inclusive business in agrifood markets: evidence and action. A report based on proceedings of an international conference held in Beijing, 5–6 March 2008. also available at: www.regoverningmarkets.orgenfilemanageractive?fid=1059. Zamroni, A., Laoubi, K. Yamao, M. 2011. The development of seaweed farming as a sustainable coastal management method in Indonesia: an opportunities and constraints assessment. In R. Anderson E. Beriatos, eds. Development and planning. Essex, UK, WIT Press. Zamroni, A. Yamao, M. 2011. Coastal resource management: fishermen’s perceptions of seaweed farming in Indonesia. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 60: 32–38. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in Indonesia Iain C. Neish Technical Adviser P.T. IMTA MUZE Indonesia Neish, I.C. 2013. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming in Indonesia. In D. Valderrama, J. Cai, N. Hishamunda N. Ridler, eds. Social and economic dimensions of carrageenan seaweed farming, pp. 61–89. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 580. Rome, FAO. 204 pp . 62

1. INTRODUCTION