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5.1 Issues perceived by farmers
The major sustainability issues perceived by farmers revolve around seasonality impacts on crop productivity of cottonii and the price instability that accompanied
seasonal variations in seaweed supply. Specific issues are: • the need for robust cottonii cultivars that have similar growth characteristics to
spinosum cultivars, especially with respect to growth during all seasons of the year;
• the need for cottonii cultivar biomass in sufficient quantities for seasonal replanting;
• the need for finance to cover the purchases of biomass for replanting; • means for prevention or control of “ice-ice” malaise, Neosiphonia infestation and
other seasonal maladies; • access to fair trade and market links;
• access to knowledge and information on technologies appropriate to the different seaweed farming regions.
5.2 Issues perceived by processors
Processors have been exposed for several years to cottonii supplies that fell short of demand. The problem became especially critical in 2008–09 when short supplies
resulted in high and unstable prices that resulted in the loss of carrageenan market share to other food ingredients. As of late 2009, the carrageenan market remained weak.
Processors were uncertain as to whether that was caused by price instability or was a reflection of the global economic recession. There was a general consensus that stable,
affordable cottonii supplies were essential to sustainable carrageenan markets.
Marinalg International is a worldwide association that promotes the image and use of seaweed-derived hydrocolloids in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries.
Many of the world’s largest processors of RAGS belong to Marinalg. Specific issues of interest to the industry have been addressed by Marinalg in position papers posted
on its Web site www.marinalg.org. One persistent issue addressed by Marinalg deals with recent attempts to have carrageenan banned as a food additive Tobacman et al.,
2008. Another problem is connected with reports describing how introduced RAGS have established alien and invasive populations in coral reef habitats in Hawaii Parsons
et al., 2008, Kiribati Pala, 2008 and Tamil Nadu in India Tobacman et al., 2008; Chandrasekaran et al., 2008. Marinalg responded to these reports with a position
paper and a protocol for introducing non-indigenous seaweeds.
5.3 Issues perceived by governments
The multilayered, decentralized structure of government agencies in Indonesia has led to integration and coordination concerns by officials in the several government
agencies that deal with seaweed farmers. They are aware of the concerns of farmers and processors and also of the need to balance uses of the marine foreshore. Government
officials have also complained about inadequate budgets and diffusion of funds through layers of government and agencies. As a result, information such as crop production
statistics cannot be collected and disseminated comprehensively.
Government organizations at the provincial and regency level have viewed seaweed farms and processing plants as sustainable development options for much of coastal
Indonesia. Efforts are under way in many regions to develop financial support programmes for seaweed farmers. The training of human resources and the need for
BDSs are perceived as necessary conditions for sustainable development.
5.4 Issues perceived by development agencies and NGOs
Numerous aid agencies, international financial institutions and NGOs have become involved directly or indirectly with seaweed farmers in Indonesia since the mid-
1980s. Generally, such agencies have worked either through government agencies or in coordination with them. The perceived needs of farmers and processors
have been addressed with training and farmer finance initiatives tied to generally rigorous monitoring and evaluation efforts to ensure the proper use, disbursement
and management of funds and the prompt submission of reports. Initiatives by IFC-PENSA, Swiss Contact, AusAID, CIDA and USAID have emphasized the
development of BDS providers. Seaplant.net Foundation is one example of a BDS provider that has received support from all of those agencies.
5.5 Concluding remarks
Seaweed farming has been expanding in Indonesia since 1985; by 2008, it provided an average annual income on the order of USD5 000 to an estimated 20 000 farm
households working on a part-time basis. The most diligent farmers were able to make 2–3 times that amount by working full time or by employing the “leader model”
approach to farming. Such earnings were well above the poverty level. Interviewed farmers generally asserted that seaweed farming was by far their most lucrative
economic activity.
Seaweed farming is also complementary and compatible with other village economic activities such as fishing and farming land crops. Ready cash from seaweed farming has
also had a noticeable multiplier effect. Shops, support services and local infrastructure have benefited visibly from seaweed cash flowing through local village economies.
The spread of mobile communication technology, Internet connectivity and satellite television has been facilitated by the earnings from seaweed farming. Communication
links, in turn, have facilitated the acquisition of knowledge, information, tools and solutions by seaweed farmers even in the more remote regions of Indonesia. The
reflexive approach to Indonesian seaweed farm development has been driven by farmers and local traderscollectors in a “bottom-up” manner. A market need was
revealed to them by value chain stakeholders on the “demand” side; farmers were exposed to the simple grow-out technologies; and with facilitation from a variety of
organizations, seaweed farmers were able to build their businesses within the context of village norms, mores and structures.
Seaweed farming has never been imposed on farmers using a “top-down” approach; in addition, the simplicity of farming techniques has meant that technology transfer
has been readily accomplished. Seaweed farming has rapidly become integrated into the social fabric of farmer villages to the point where it now appears to be a traditional
economic activity even though it did not exist until the mid-1980s or later.
Opportunities for seaweed aquaculture intensification and integrated multitrophic aquaculture are considerable.
88
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study would not have been completed without the warm support of several people in the industry who shared their time, effort and information. I am truly grateful to the
seaweed farmers I interviewed in Marupo and Marcilla, Coron Palawan; Guindacpan Island, Tubigon, Bohol; Panyam Look, Layag-Layag and Arena Blanco, Zamboanga
City; Pondohan Sipangkot, Sapagamat 1 2, Baligtang Sitangkai, Tawi-Tawi. I thank Ms Jacqueline Corrosco, Hadji Adam Omar, Hadja Saada Omar, Munib Joe, Arnel
Kalugdan, Richard Radier, Benson Dakay, Antonio Yuri Yap, Farley Baricuatro, Dinah Sayam, Philip Parado, José Arturo Evalle, and Dr Jumelita Romero for invaluable
information given.
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1. INTRODUCTION