52
B. Discussion
This part deals with answering the research questions. The research questions are 1 What are the errors the students commit in using the non-finite
clauses? and 2 What is the mastery of the non-finite clauses of the sixth semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma
University? The discussion on those two questions is based on the research results and related theories.
1. The Errors Committed by the Students
Brown 1994: 205 defines errors as “noticeable deviations from the adult grammar of a native speaker.” In relation to the research, errors refer to the
students’ answers which deviate from the rule of the non-finite patterns. The errors were classified based on the types of clauses they belonged to. All the
errors that are presented below are sequenced based on the percentage of the occurrence of the error categories starting from the biggest percentage to the
smallest. Each of the categories is explained further completed with some examples. Each example is also completed with one of the respondents’ numbers
in which the erroneous answer is found. The respondent’s number is indicated by R .
a. The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses
The errors the students committed in constructing the non-finite adjective clauses were classified into several categories. Those error categories can be seen
in Figure 4.1. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
53
Figure 4.1: The Errors in the Non-finite Adjective Clauses
The following is further explanations about each type of errors.
1 The Occurrence of Finite Subordinate Clauses
In the test, the students were required to transform the finite subordinate clauses and simple finite sentences to the corresponding non-finite clauses. In fact,
the subordinate clauses made by the students were still finite. In other words, the subordinate clauses still had tense, person, and number.
71 a. Question: The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees
have been moved off the road. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
54 b. Student’s answer: The trees which were blown down in last night’s
storm have been moved off the road R : 8. c. Intended answer: The trees blown down in last night’s storm have
been moved off the road. Basically, sentence 71b was grammatically correct. It might reflect that the
students had understood the way to make a good complex sentence. The problem
was that the subordinate clause which were blown down in last night’s storm was
still finite. The word were showed that the clause was still in past tense. The word were
and the relative pronoun which should have been omitted in order to make the clause non-finite.
72 a. Question: Ms. Donaldson, who teaches Linguistics at the university,
recently received recognition for her research on the use of gestures in communication.
b. Student’s answer: Ms. Donaldson teaches Linguistics at the university, recently received recognition for her research on the use of
gestures in communication R : 20. c. Intended answer: Ms. Donaldson, teaching linguistics at the
university, recently received recognition for her research on the use of gestures in communication.
The subordinate clause in 72b was still finite. It could be proven by the use
of the word teaches in the sentences. In that case, the students only omitted the
relative pronoun, but they forgot to change the verb into the non-finite verb form. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
55 The word teaches should be teaching. Another mistake was that the students did
not put the clause between commas. 73
a. Question: British trains are equipped with special communication devices. These communication devices may be operated only in
emergency .
b. Student’s answer: British trains are equipped with special communication devices which may be operated only in emergency R
: 64. c. Intended answer: British trains are equipped with special
communication devices to be operated only in an emergency. Sentence 73b is another example of the occurrence of the finite
subordinate clause. In 73b, the relative pronoun which and the modal auxiliary
may should have been omitted to make the adjective clause non-finite. To-
infinitive was the correct form of non-finite verb to replace the relative pronoun and modal auxiliaries.
The fact that the subordinate clauses were still finite implied that the students might have not fully understood the non-finite clauses rules. The non-
finite clauses lack tense markers, modal auxiliaries, and sometimes a subject and a subordinator Quirk et al., 1992: 995. That is the basic principle of the non-finite
pattern. Thus, if the students’ answers still contained tense and modal, it could be concluded that they had not understood the basic principle of the non-finite
clauses. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
56
2 Confusion between Defining and Non-defining Adjective Clauses
The second type of errors is the confusion between defining and non- defining adjective clauses. Basically, the non-defining adjective clauses should be
separated from the main clause. In fact, the students were still confused about this. Some of the students put commas for defining clause. On the other hand, they did
not put commas for the adjective clause that should be non-defining. Sometimes, they only put one comma for the non-defining clauses. The following are the
examples. 74
a. Question: Arizona, which was once thought to be a useless dessert, is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
b. Student’s answer: Arizona thought to be a useless dessert is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state R : 34.
c. Intended answer: Arizona, once thought to be a useless desert, is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
From 74b, it was clear that Arizona refers to a definite noun. Therefore, the adjective clause thought to be a useless dessert should have been written down
between commas. The adjective clause should be written between commas because it did not specify the noun Arizona as the antecedent. The adjective clause
functioned only as additional information. Another simple mistake from sentence 74b was the students omitted the word once which should have been placed
before the word thought. 75
a. Question: Only a few of the movies that are shown at the Super Theatre
are suitable for children. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
57 b. Student’s answer: Only a few of the movies, shown at the Super
Theatre, are suitable for children R : 65. c. Intended answer: Only a few of the movies shown at the Super
Theatre are suitable for children. In 75b, the sentence was grammatically correct. The problem was the
adjective clause shown at the Super Theatre was put between commas. The adjective clause should have not been written between commas because it helped
to specify the indefinite noun. The presence of commas made the sentence have different meaning compared to the original sentence.
3 The Occurrence of Verbless Clauses
The focus of the research was whether the students were able to produce sentences using the non-finite correctly or not. The results of the test showed that
there were some students who produced verbless clauses. It is called verbless clauses because they do not possess any verbs. Although the sentences were
grammatically correct, they were considered wrong because in the test the students were asked to produce the non-finite clauses.
76 a. Question: Ms. Donaldson, who teaches Linguistics at the university,
recently received recognition for her research on the use of gestures in communication.
b. Student’s answer: Ms. Donaldson, a teacher at Linguistics at the university, recently received recognition for her research on the use of
gestures in communication R : 46. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
58 c. Intended answer: Ms. Donaldson, teaching linguistics at the
university, recently received recognition for her research on the use of gestures in communication.
Sentence 76b showed that the finite adjective clause in the original sentence had been changed into a verbless clause. It was obvious that the no verb was found in
the clause. In addition, there was one more little mistake. The preposition at in at Linguistics
should have been replaced by preposition of. 77
a. Question: Arizona, which was once thought to be a useless dessert, is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
b. Student’s answer: Arizona, a useless dessert, is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state R : 46.
c. Intended answer: Arizona, once thought to be a useless desert, is today a rapidly growing industrial agricultural state.
From 77b, it was clear that the students omitted the relative pronoun as well as the verbs. This revealed that the students might be confused about the concept of
the non-finite clauses and verbless clauses. Actually, both sentences 76b and 77b seemed to be acceptable. They were considered as wrong answers since they
were not in line with the purpose of the test.
4 The Adjective Clauses Modifying a Wrong Noun
As it has been explained in theoretical description, adjective clauses should be located directly after the noun or the antecedent. Otherwise, there is a
possibility that the adjective clause modifies a wrong noun and it will lead to confusion. This thing also happened in the test. The following are the examples.
59 78
a. Question: The Independent Television Authority provides a new commercial television service. It was set up in 1954.
b. Student’s answer: The Independent Television Authority provides a new commercial television service, set up in 1954 R : 28.
c. Intended answer: The Independent Television Authority, set up in 1954, provides a new commercial television service.
The pattern of the non-finite clause in 78b was correct. This implied that the students had understood the rules of the non-finite adjective clause. They had
omitted the relative pronoun, modal auxiliary, and changed the finite verb into the correct non-finite verb. The error was on the position of the adjective clause. It
should be located after The Independent Television Authority. If the adjective clause was put after the noun service, the sentence was semantically incorrect
because the meaning of the word set up was established. 79
a. Question: The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees have been moved off the road.
b. Student’s answer: The trees have been moved off the road blown down in last night’s storm R : 27.
c. Intended answer: The trees blown down in last night’s storm have been moved off the road.
In 79b, the –ed participle blown down should have been placed after the trees
. From the original context, the things that were blown down were the trees, not the road. Thus, it was clear that the adjective clause should be put directly
60 after the specified noun. Putting the adjective clause after another noun in the
sentence might cause confusion since the meaning would be different.
5 Wrong Choice of Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses
In the test paper, it had been explicitly stated that the students had to use the clauses or sentences written in italics to be the subordinate clause. The reality was
that there were students’ answers which used the clause or sentence in italics as the main clause of the sentence. Hence, it could be inferred that the students might
have not read the instructions carefully. The examples are: 80
a. Question: The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees have been moved off the road.
b. Student’s answer: The trees, which have been moved off the road, were blown down in last nights’ storm R : 58.
c. Intended answer: The trees blown down in last night’s storm have been moved off the road.
Basically, sentence 80b was acceptable and grammatically correct. The problem was the adjective clause was still in finite form. Another problem was the
answer had violated the instructions. The adjective clause which have been moved off the road
should have been the main clause because in the original sentence the clause was not italicized.
81 a. Question: The gales caused widespread damage. They swept across
southern England last night. b. Student’s answer: Causing widespread damage, the gales swept
across southern England last night R : 1. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
61 c. Intended answer: The gales sweeping across southern England last
night caused widespread damage. If sentence 81b was compared to the original sentence, it was found out
that the clause that should be the main clause was made to be the subordinate clause, while the clause that should be the subordinate clause was made to be the
main clause. Besides, in 81b, the subordinate clause functioned as an adverbial clause. The problem was that the relation between the subordinate clause and the
main clause became unclear.
6 Problems between Active and Passive Sentences
In the test, it was found out that the students were still confused of the difference between active and passive clauses using participle. –Ed participle
clauses automatically have passive meaning because they are the reduced form of adjective clause in passive form. In other words, the finite adjective clauses in
passive form are transformed into the non-finite clauses by using –ed participle. In some cases, the students used –ing participle instead of –ed participle to produce
the non-finite adjective clauses with passive meaning. In some other cases, the students used –ed participle for the non-finite clauses with active meaning. This
fact proved that the students were still confused to produce sentences containing the non-finite clauses with active or passive meaning. The examples are presented
as follows. 82
a. Question: The Independent Television Authority provides a new commercial television service. It was set up in 1954.
62 b. Student’s answer: The Independent Television Authority setting up
in 1954 provides a new commercial television service R : 42. c. Intended answer: The Independent Television Authority, set up in
1954, provides a new commercial television service. In 82b, the position of the adjective clause was correct. It was considered wrong
because the verb setting had active meaning. In 82a, the sentence that should be the adjective clause was in passive form, therefore, it should be written using –ed
participle. Besides, the adjective clause should be written between commas because the antecedent was specific already.
83 a. Question: Pictures that showed the brutality of war entered the
living rooms of millions of TV watchers on the nightly news. b. Student’s answer: Pictures showed the brutality of war entered the
living rooms of millions of TV watchers on the nightly news R : 33. c. Intended answer: Pictures showing the brutality of war entered the
living rooms of millions of TV watchers on the nightly news. From 83b, the verb should have been showing because the original sentence was
in active. The word showed in 83b could be interpreted as past participle or –ed participle. The use of –ed participle made the clause had passive meaning. Thus,
the use –ed participle instead of –ing participle was regarded incorrect.
7 Retaining the Relative Pronoun
Changing a finite adjective clause into a non-finite clause requires the omission of the relative pronoun. The fact was the students still kept or retained
63 the relative pronoun when they were asked to produce the non-finite adjective
clauses. For example: 84
a. Question: Only a few of the movies that are shown at the Super Theatre
are suitable for children. b. Student’s answer: Only a few of the movies that shown at the Super
Theatre are suitable for children R : 16. c. Intended answer: Only a few of the movies shown at the Super
Theatre are suitable for children. From 84b, it was obvious that the students only omitted the be form the verb,
but they still retained the relative pronoun. Thus, the sentence was considered wrong.
85 a. Question: The gales caused widespread damage. They swept across
southern England last night. b. Student’s answer: The gales who swept across southern England last
night caused widespread damage R : 29. c. Intended answer: The gales sweeping across southern England last
night caused widespread damage. In 85b, the adjective clause was still in finite form, and the relative pronoun had
not been omitted. Moreover, the relative pronoun which was used in 85b was wrong. The relative pronoun who is used to refer to person. Hence, the use of who
to refer to the gales was incorrect. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
64
8 Transforming into Wrong Types of Subordinate Clauses
In Part B of the test, the students were required to combine two simple sentences into a complex sentence which contained the non-finite clause for each
item by using the italicized sentence as the subordinate clause. This type of test required the students to infer the relation between the two sentences before
combining them into a correct complex sentence. The students had to think over the subordinate clause whether it would be a noun clause, an adjective clause, or
an adverbial clause. The results of the test showed that some students might have misinterpreted the relation of the two sentences, thus, the subordinate clause was
in the wrong type of clauses. The following is the example. 86
a. Question: British trains are equipped with special communication devices. These communication devices may be operated only in an
emergency. b. Student’s answer: That these communication devices maybe
operated only in an emergency, British trains are equipped with special communication devices R : 1.
c. Intended answer: British trains are equipped with special communication devices to be operated only in an emergency.
In 86b, it could be seen that the subordinate clause was made to be a noun clause which was introduced by that. Then, the function of the noun clause
whether it became the subject or object of the main clause was not clear. In other words, the relationship between the main clause and the subordinate clause was
not clear. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
65
9 Inappropriate Use of being + V-ed
Basically, V-ed, to be + V-ed, and being + V-ed had passive meaning. The difference was that being + V-ed stressed on the progressive aspect Quirk et al.,
1992: 1265. The fact was the students might generalize the use of being + V-ed. The misuse of being + V-ed caused difference in meaning of the sentences. For
example: 87
a. Question: British trains are equipped with special communication devices. These communication devices may be operated only in an
emergency. b. Student’s answer: British trains are equipped with special
communication devices being operated only in emergency R : 33. c. Intended answer: British trains are equipped with special
communication devices to be operated only in an emergency. In 87b, the use of being + V-ed was inappropriate because the original sentence
did not put emphasis on the activity in progress. 88
a. Question: The trees were blown down in last night’s storm. The trees have been moved off the road.
b. Student’s answer: Being blown down in last night’s storm, the trees have been moved off the road R : 50.
c. Intended answer: The trees blown down in last night’s storm have been moved off the road.
66 The use of being + V-ed in 88b was also inappropriate. Besides, the position of
the clause was wrong. If the participle clause was located in the beginning of the sentence then it would be an adverbial clause.
10 Inappropriate Use of to be + V-ed
Clauses of passive modality could be reduced into the non-finite clauses using to be + V-ed Quirk et al., 1992: 1267. In fact, some students generalized
this rule. They used to be + V-ed instead of V-ed, or being + V-ed. The following is the example.
89 a. Question: Only a few of the movies that are shown at the Super
Theatre are suitable for children.
b. Student’s answer: Only a few of the movies to be shown at the Super Theatre are suitable for children R : 63.
c. Intended answer: Only a few of the movies shown at the Super Theatre are suitable for children.
Sentence 89b had no modal auxiliary. Thus, using to be + V-ed instead of –ed participle was considered wrong.
11 Inappropriate Use of –ed Participle
-Ed participle clauses are basically the reduced form of passive clauses. In -ed participle clauses, the be form of the verb and the relative pronoun have been
omitted in order to change it into the non-finite clauses. In the test, some of the students used V–ed for clauses that required to be + V-ed. The following is the
example. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
67 90
a. Question: British trains are equipped with special communication devices. These communication devices may be operated only in an
emergency. b. Student’s answer: British trains are equipped with special
communication devices operated only in an emergency R : 11. c. Intended answer: British trains are equipped with special
communication devices to be operated only in an emergency. In 90b, the use of V-ed was incorrect. From 90a, it was obvious that there was
a modal expression. Thus, the students should have used to be +V-ed instead of V-ed.
b. The Errors in the Non-finite Noun Clauses