participate on the party movement. Women were approved their existence. The last is revolutionary marriage. It means that communist regime has created rules to eradicate
old tradition, in this case means revolutionary marriage. Marriage is seen as a commitment. Women were no longer as a subject of parental decision.
B. The Influences of the Regimes Authorities on the Women’s Social Roles
Development
There are two regimes that are discussed in this study. They are Confucianism in 1908-1938 when China was in a transition time between Dinasty and Republic and
Communist regime in 1931-1951. Learning the findings of the two Chinese women’s social roles on the earlier sub-chapter, we can analyze the influences made by each
regime authorizing China. There are so many influences which are caused by each regime. The following
analysis will only discuss the influences of each regime’s authorities which are reflected in Yu-fang and De-hong as two of three main characters’ life. The women’s
social roles can be seen clearly through some influences that appear into each aspect.
1. Confucianism Transitional Period between a Dinasty and Republic 1908-
1938
Confucius is the dominant Chinese philosopher both morally and politically. As said on The Modern Book of China by McAleavy, Confucianism became the most
pervasive doctrine to promote the belief in women’s “natural place.” Confucius
himself did not inherently denigrate women, although he placed them at the lower end of the patriarchal family structure. Yet, through the ages the assumption that
men’s and women’s social places and expected behaviors were quite distinct, was based on Confucian hierarchical precepts, and were reinforced by prescriptive advice
manuals like Lessons for Girls. .” Confucian family system is a doctrine that regulated every aspect of human activity and formed the basis of entire structure of
the state. It was said that the Feudal principalities saw as the prime need of mankind to resolve the problems of peaceful coexistence and harmony with the universe. There
are several principles which occur in the Confucian family system 5. Confucianism regulates the prime human relationships. Here, Foot binding,
concubine, and forbidden marriage are the major proofs that indicate the influences of the Confucianism.Women’s social role in this regime is seen as secondary class. They
are the proofs to show that they are placed to be secondary class. Character that lived in this era regime is Yu-fang. She had lived China was
transforming a dynasty into a republic during Manchu dynasty. By this period, the customs which are planted by the dominance of emperor was still regarded as
obligation. This description leads an argument that women at this era had to agree in every rules made by the emperor rest on the doctrine of Confucianism.
a Foot Binding
One of the clearest influence of the Confucianism doctrine is foot binding. Hence, Mc Aleavy states that Confucian family system is a doctrine that regulated
every aspect of human activity and formed the basis of entire structure of the state. It was said that the Feudal principalities saw as the prime need of mankind to resolve
the problems of peaceful coexistence and harmony with the universe. McAleavy states in his book Modern History of China that Confucian principle is to serve
parents during their life and when they die to bury them and to sacrifice to them 6. Furthermore, it can be concluded that Confucianism becomes the prime doctrine that
regulates the relationship among the family members. Foot binding at first introduced as make up function. However, there is another deep reason for that. Foot Binding is
one of the actions that show to limit the women’s movement. Kiat and Sudarno said, “Confucius regulates the family relationship appropriate with patriarchal way, the
father controls the relation over the family and the other way around a child has to agree with every decision made” 94. Here, Confucius regulates the relationship
over the family. As a child who had been a concubine, has to agree with every decision made. They are also differentiated in a matter of status and roles. They are
raised to be passive in receiving some treatments from the family and “husband”. Based on the statements above, Chinese woman at this era shows their roles
by binding their feet as a tradition since China still became a dynasty. They must be bounded because they are prepared not only as a concubine, but also as the family
asset who will make the family status higher. Crites also explains, “The origin of foot binding that it began late in the Tang Dynasty 618-906 and it gradually spread
through the upper class during the Song Dynasty 960-1297. During the Ming period 1368-1644 and the Ching Dynasty 1644-1911 the custom of foot binding spread
through the overwhelming majority of the Chinese population until it was finally outlawed in the 1911 Revolution of Sun Yat-Sen.
Every action has its own aim. Foot binding has also an aim for the women. It restricts the movement space for women to move. O’Neil added that foot-binding
also had the effect of restricting a woman’s movements and advertising the status of her family, since such a woman was incapable of working in the fields 94. This
argument describes that foot-binding aimed at limiting the woman’s movements in her life.
The discussion above about the life of Yu-fang and her foot binding experience can be related with influence of regime’s authorities. In this section
Confucianism doctrine that was conducted by the emperor. It is clear that the roles of a woman that is being the victim of a foot binding is placed to be passive, obedient,
and oppressed. This leads an argument that women’s social role living in this era are to be a secondary class.
b Concubine
Another influence that can be examined through the Confucianism doctrine and emperor authority is Concubine. Concubinage was started when China was ruled
by emperor under legitimation of dynasty. Yu-fang had experienced becoming a concubine. . He had choosen a highly ranked warlord general who would bring status
and power to the family and Yu-fang’s father. Her father had long plan for her to be a concubine of a warlord Xue Zhi-heng. This description means that marriage was a
transaction, not a matter of feelings. Yu-fang was married to a warlord general who could make her father’s status higher. Bushnel states that power and family status
were considered to be very important during the early 1900’s. Moise also well explains that most marriages arranged by parents of the people involved. It was
considered perfectly normal for the bride and grooms to be strangers, and to meet one another for the first time during the marriage ceremony 28. These two ideas define
that marriage in this era was fully arranged by the parents. Women had no idea and right to choose and even to decide their marriage life.
Yu-fang had to admit her marriage in becoming a concubine, even though she did not want it. She has to put parental decision first. It is also interpreted that a
woman has to be silent in every decision she face. Although taking a concubine was supposed to be a method of last resort for a
patriarch to acquire a male heir, the practice was long established as a marker of elite status. Western writers improperly termed this practice “polygamy,” or taking
multiple wives. In fact, the position of the wife remained sacrosanct with regards to her authority in the household and her role as “mother” to all of her husband’s
progeny. A concubine was not a wife. However, the life of a concubine was far from pleasant. A concubine would
be subject to the authority of the husband’s wife while also bestowing a great deal of honor and loyalty upon her “husband”. Meaning to say, the roles of woman who will
be a concubine differs from a wife. The function of a concubine is for pleasure, but the function of a wife is not.
As said by Confucius in Pane’s book “Tiongkok Zaman Baru”, “Confucius regulates the family relationship appropriate with patriarchal way, father control the
relation over the family and the other way around a child has to agree with every decision made” 94.
Again, it can be concluded that being a concubine, Chinese women living in this era shows that they are secondary class that have to agree in every decisions
including their parents’ desire. Confucianism is underlying the idea of being a concubine that was conducted by the parents especially father who want to make the
status of the family higher. They are also differentiated in a matter of status and roles. They are functioned to be passive in receiving some treatments from the family and
“husband”. From these conclusions, it leads the argument that the life of women who are concubines is placed to be passive and secondary class.
c Forbidden Marriage
The other key influence of the regime’s authority is through forbidden marriage. Yu-fang had explicitly experienced intermarriage. Yu-fang eventually
remarried a much older, established doctor. He was not a Han Chinese, as were the Yangs and most of China, but a Manchu, one of the original inhabitants of
Manchuria. The fact that Yu-fang was an ex-concubine and the age gap between Dr. Xia
and her age made his children were disagree. Based on the Manchu of etiquettes, there are some rules in regulating Yu-fang and Dr.Xia. McAleavy stated that in law,
intermarriage between the two races was forbidden, though the practical effect of this prohibition must not be exaggerated. It was never intended to apply to unions
between members of the Chinese and Manchu and probably its only result was to fortify Manchu families in their reluctance to give their daughters in marriage to
ordinary Chinese civilians 25. That is why intermarriage that was experienced by Yu-fang was forbidden. There was a rule that prohibiting intermarriage as had been
around by women at this era. The emperor authorized the intermarriage between Manchu men and Chinese
concubines. McAleavy added that Manchu men, apart from the imperial family itself, were not all deterred by statue from taking Chinese concubines. The emperors order
that he should no beget a successor in whom an admixture of Chinese blood might arouse inconvenient sympathies 25. Best also states that the Manchus prohibited
Han Chinese from migrating to the Manchu homeland and forbid intermarriage. It interprets that the Emperor regulated the marriage between Manchu men and Chinese
concubines. It was forbidden to have such a marriage because it was resulting into inconvenient sympathies among the Manchu men.
Based on Yu-fang’s life experience, there are some marriage rules regulating Chinese women at this era, which is intermarriage. The emperor was prohibiting the
existence of intermarriage because of the idea of inconvenient for them to marry. It leads an argument that women’s social role which is reflected by Yu-fang is seen to
abide emperor’s authority.
After all, we can conclude that Confucianism has a greater influence to the development of women’s social roles. Confucianism restricts the women’s privilege
to move, think and choose their own rights because the regime sees women have no ability to do work as men do. At first the doctrine places women to be secondary
class. As Yu-fang’s grows older, the reader is able to see the traditional ideals of old
China collapse as new philosophies and ideas are developed. Yu-fang’s indirect voice and oppressed life is contrasted with her daughter De-hong’s opened and liberated
nature or life. The life of a mother and daughter are compared and used to describe the cultural changes that took place during the lifetime of Grandmother Yu-fang.
2. Communist Regime 1931-1951
