THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FASHION IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN CAREER WOMEN AS SEEN IN THE DEVIL WEARS PRADA

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FASHION IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN CAREER WOMEN AS SEEN IN THE DEVIL WEARS PRADA THESIS

Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of Requirement for the Sarjana Sastra Degree in the English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

By: RENY FIAN ABRITA

C0304005

FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FASHION IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN CAREER WOMEN AS SEEN IN THE DEVIL WEARS PRADA

By:

RENY FIAN ABRITA C0304005

Approved to be examined by the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Thesis Supervisor

Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum, Ph.D NIP. 196703231995122001

The Head of English Department

Dr. Djatmika, M.A.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FASHION IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN CAREER WOMEN AS SEEN IN THE DEVIL WEARS PRADA

By:

RENY FIAN ABRITA C0304005

Accepted to be examined by the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret Univertisty On February 2010

The Board Examiners:

Chairman

Dra. Nani Sukarni, M.S

NIP. 195103211981032002

Secretary

Yusuf Kurniawan, S.S, M.A

NIP. 197111301999031001

First Examiner

Dra. S.K Habsari, M.Hum, Ph.D

NIP. 196703231995122001

Second Examiner

Dra. Susilorini, M.A

NIP. 196506011992032002

Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Drs. Sudarno, M.A

PRONOUNCEMENT

NAME : RENY FIAN ABRITA NIM

: C 0304005

Stated whole-heartedly that this thesis entitled “THE SIGNIFICANCE

OF FASHION IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN CAREER

WOMEN AS SEEN IN THE DEVIL WEARS PRADA”, is originally made by the researcher. It is neither a plagiarism nor is made by other. The things related to other’s people work are written in quotation and included in bibliography.

If it is discovered and proved that this pronouncement is dishonest, the researcher willingly accepts any penalties from English Department of Sebelas Maret University.

Surakarta, February 2010

The researcher

MOTTO

“...I’ll spread my wings and I’ll learn how to fly...

I do what it takes till I touch the sky

Make a Wish Take a Chance Make a Change And Breakaway!!!”

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to:

My beloved Pak Soenar and Bu Soenar,

You’re the best I’ve ever had in my life My Brother, Wempy H.K, S.H and wife My Cute Little Nephew, Putra

My Self...

21

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Alhamdulillah . Thanks to Allah SWT to lead me in the journey of my life and be my guidance to finish this thesis.

I would like to express my gratitude for all those who gave me the possibility to complete this thesis. I want to thank Drs. Sudarno, MA, the Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts for the approval of this thesis, Dr. Djatmika, MA, the Head of English Department, for the permission to write this thesis and all of English Department lecturers for giving me so much knowledge and deeper understanding of American Studies.

I am deeply indebted to my thesis supervisor, Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M.Hum, Ph.D, thousands of gratitude can not be compared with all which you’ve given to me, I should say that you’re my real tutor.

My friends under “Bu Habsari” supervision, Rosalina, Risky Ady and Sonny, thanks for all of your supports, interests and valuable hints which help me to complete this thesis. I also would like to thank my best friends, Ria, Martha, Hilda and Ingrid, also Ika and Santi in Jakarta, for being my true friends who always understand me in the proccess of my life. My former friends in English Department, especially American Studies ’04, thanks for all valuable sharing we’d ever done.

Especially, I would like to give my special thanks to my beloved father

ABSTRACT

Reny Fian Abrita. C0304005. The Significance of Fashion in The Construction of American Career Women As Seen in The Devil Wears Prada. Thesis. English Department. Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts. University of Sebelas Maret Surakarta.

This thesis is written based on researching a movie entitled The Devil Wears Prada , directed by David Frankel. It is purposed to explain how the movie constructs American successful career women through their fashion styles and how this fashion style leads women into object of spectacle by male gaze which results the issue of female body objectification.

The research is descriptive qualitative of which the main data are in the form of characterization of the characters, costumes, dialogue, gesture and visual expression, and other cinematographic elements of the movie. The supporting data are taken from other sources such as, film reviews, books, and some internet articles related to the movie. It is also supported by some articles of American women’s issues to answer the research question.

Since the research is in the scope of American study which is an interdisciplinary study, it involves some disciplines which are applied in the form of theory and approach. In answering the research questions, this research applies some theories and approaches including semiotic film theory, sosio cultural approach and feminists approach as its point of view.

From the analysis, it can be found that The Devil Wears Prada movie uses fashion as a sign of power and success for women in the working place. Despite of its power, fashion style has also been used to objectify female body in the patriarchal mainstream. Fashion products mainly explores women’s body to be an object of spectacle through its style. Beside providing the great influence of fashion toward women, the movie also explores the construction of American career women today through the issue of gender roles ambivalence and politic of life choice. Since the movie is the product of mass culture, finally, it is going back

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background

Fashion is actually something that can be found everywhere and everytime. Fashion seems to be an important thing because it is considered as the reflection of one’s self. Cyntia Durcanin, the editor of ELLE magazine, has said that “Most of all fashion is about being comfortable with yourself, translating self- esteem into a personal style”. At a glance it looks like, being fashionable is being comfortable with one’s self, but then the word ”translating self-esteem” has to be underlined to understand more about being fashionable.

Fashion itself is like a “mirror phase” which reveal the creation of cultural myth. Clothing and other kinds of ornamentation make the human body culturally visible...clothing draws the body so that it can be culturally seen, articulates it in a meaning form ( http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/2001/4/01.04.11.x.html).

Fashion brings the image of people who wear it and has a contribution to send the cultural message in the society. Since women are more attracted in fashion rather than men, the image of women in fashion becomes a highly politicized issue in the society.

In connection with this, the term “dress code” plays an important role to define the meaning of fashion to one’s self. In one sense, code means a set of rules prescribing how to act or what to do, and in another, a key (or set of instructions)

types of behavior can be restricted and regulated into acceptable norms, a set of injunctions prescribing ways to dress, act, or conduct oneself, as in a dress code. Nowadays, women in the work field are restricted in this terms of dress code to show their identity as real career women through their fashion choices. They call this as a “dress for success”. Women’s fashion choices can be considered as a sign of women’s success in the work place. Many media expose this phenomenon and make sure their consumers, especially women to believe in this message.

One of the media which describes this phenomenon is movie. The emergence of fashion movie is spread out all over the world to show the great influence of fashion. The Devil Wears Prada, one of the box office movie, is an Academy Award-nominated 2006 comedy drama film. The movie is a loose screen adaptation of Lauren Weisberger’s 2003 novel of the same name. The writer used to work as an assistant at Vogue and had the experience to depict fashion magazines as management style and self-enchantment of the society. The Devil Wears Prada has brought many issues of women’s life through the characterization of women in the work place and their fashion choices since it is a fashion movie background. Ginia Bellafante in MSN movie review stated that the movie “has successfully gained valuable experience in depicting women at work and

exciting New York” (http://www.slate.com/id/2144787). In addition, the characters in the movie also bring some ideological implications of contemporary issue of women’s value in American culture through feminism framework. The Devil Wears Prada’s engagement with feminism and fashion is not simple. However, the movie also

play in

a glamorous

and

reflects the ideological image of women’s body trough fashion style and female “empowernment” by the characterization of American career women.

The Devil Wears Prada tells about the struggle of Andrea Sach to get a job as an assistant of Miranda Priestly, editor of Runaway magazine, in which many girls are willing to die for this job. At first, she fits in poorly among gossip of fashion that makes up the magazine’s staff. It seems very difficult for her to do the job competently with her lack of style. Sometimes, she feels underpressure to work with Miranda because of Miranda’s hard grading toward her assistant. As Andrea doesn’t want just to be defeated, she tries to do many things including learning her job better and changing her appearance through the new fashion style. Gradually, with the help of the art editor, Nigel, Andrea starts to dress more stylishly and can do her job competently. By her new appearance, it seems that she has got her success in career. Even, she replaces Emily, Miranda’s first assistant, to attend Paris Fashion Week with Miranda. In Paris, Andrea realizes that she has sacrificed many things especially her personal life to get ahead toward her career. She decides to quit from her previous job since she doesn’t want to stand in something which doesn’t fit her. However, for Andrea, Miranda’s hard grading has unconsiously made her to be a better person and led her to get the opportunity as a journalist, her dream job.

The Devil Wears Prada in its speech and visual narrative contains many signs and codes that are worth considering for a deep analysis to understand despite of its comical surface. Watching TDWP is watching a series of conflict around American values. In deeper understanding TDWP represents some

women’s issues especially in the work place. It is also a story about life choice, individual freedom, Cinderella love story and the pursuit of happiness, in the highly issue of feminism idea. By analyzing The Devil Wears Prada, it opens our understanding on how fashion and women have closely relationship to construct the image of women especially in the work place. The movie clearly depicts the social condition of American career women through fashion industry background that has influenced their way of thinking. It is interesting to analyze The Devil Wears Prada since it presents a great issue of fashion industry which closely related to the women’s problem that emerge in American society nowadays.

B. Scope of Study

Fashion has given great contribution in translating the cultural message through its products. Most people in the fashion world consider that being fashionable is actually being comfortable with one’s self and also being successful. However, female body is often trapped with the concept of being fashionable and comfortable. In fact, women can not be free to treat their own body because it seems owned by culture and value in the society. Thus, this research is focused on some phenomena as a result of the great influence of fashion industry toward women, particularly in the work place. Later, in its development, it constructs the fashion identity of American career women as represented in The Devil Wears Prada movie.

C. Problem Statements

This research is aimed to answer two questions:

1. How does the movie construct the image of successful career women through its primary heroines, Andrea Sach and Miranda Priestly in the great influence of fashion industry?

2. How is the female body objectified and exploited by fashion style in The Devil Wears Prada movie?

D. Objective of the Study

The Objectives of the study are:

1. To explain how the movie constructs the image of successful career women through its primary heroines, Andrea Sach and Miranda Priestly in the great influence of fashion industry.

2. To explain how female body is objectified and exploited by fashion style in The Devil Wears Prada movie.

E. Benefits of the Study

In accordance with the explanation above, the purpose of the study is to describe the great influence of fashion toward American society especially women in the work place represented in The Devil Wears Prada movie. This research is expected not only to describe the great influence of fashion industry toward women and female body, but also the social construction of American career women especially in New York City through their fashion identity. Moreover, this

research is expected to give a bigger contribution to American studies, because instead of giving description, this research tries to reveal the case of American experience that shapes American women, particularly New York career women. Hopefully, it gives many benefits in understanding American culture and New York career women. This research is also intended to:

1. Give contribution in understanding American society, its culture and its experience especially American women to American studies students in Sebelas Maret University.

2. Give additional information to the other researchers especially in American Studies Program, Sebelas Maret University.

F. Method of the Study

This research is a descriptive qualitative research which applies library or referential study. It means that the research uses all possibilities by reading many references to collect data and to gather more information in supporting data.

The source of data for this research is the movie entitled The Devil Wears Prada as the main data, criticism about the film, film reviews, comments and columns or article about fashion industry and career women in America especially New York city available in several media.

1. The Data

a. Main data: the main data are the images of fashion industry, costume, behavior of the characters as career women and also from the cinematographic elements of the movie entitled The Devil Wears Prada directed by David Frankel,

released in 2006 by 20 th Century Fox, New York.

b. Supporting data: the supporting data are collected from other sources, such as criticism of the film and film reviews, comments and columns or article about American career women and its dress code and also some feminist articles about female body and fashion available in several media.

2. Technique of Collecting Data The data are collected by a close activity of watching the movie as the

source of main data and also by a close reading of the supporting data. Afterwards, this research put some necessary dialogues, the cinematographic expression from the main data and some important facts from the supporting data, then compiles them into one thesis organization.

3. Technique of Analyzing the Data In this step, the data are analyzed based on the problem statements by

applying some theories. This research also applies the theories in accordance with the images of fashion and career women represented in the film. Through its cinematographic elements and some additional data, the images shown in the film are observed in order to answer the problem statements in which female body is often objectified by fashion and to find out the construction of successful women in the term of fashion style or their dress code. The conclusion finally is drawn based on the result of the analysis.

G. Theoretical Approach

American studies is an interdisciplinary study which explores American experience and its process attached in each product of American culture. Campbell and Kean in American Cultural Studies: An Introduction of American Culture have stated that,

American studies from the beginning has been concerned to explore the possibilities of cooperation between practitioners from different disciplines and even to develop an interdisclipinary methodology with its own distinctive working practices (Campbell and Kean, 1978: 2).

In addition, Linda Kerber has also described American studies as, “an impatience with disciplinary boundaries and an opennes to experimentation in academic inquiry”. In this vein, American studies suggests one to be at the boundary of the individual disciplines where they want to “merge and intermingle” the condition of American culture in academic research. At the boundaries of American culture, there are multicultural and multiperspective critical way of seeing to grasp the possibility of cultural difference. Being at this boundaries can provide a new way of seeing culture because one is pushed beyond the centre where the world is defined in the mainstream of American culture (Campbell and Kean, 1978: 3). For its cultural complexities, the research of American studies can not be conducted in just a discpline or perspective. It has provided multiperspectives and possibilities in its academic inquiry which can incorporate the study of economics, history, sociology, popular culture, women’s studies, and also media.

One of the essential field of American studies is the study of popular culture. Popular culture emerges from the urbanisation of the industrial revolution, which identifies the term with the usual definitions of 'mass culture'. It is seen as

for mass consumption (http://www.aim.edu.au/verve/_resources/PCA_Mod_1_1.pdf). Popular culture in American society is contradictory to its core of mass consumption. On the one hand it is industrialized – its commodities are produced and distributed by a profit motivated industry that follows only its own economic interest. But, on the other hand it is about the people and the people’s interest – as is evidenced by the number of popular products including film. Here, to be made into popular culture, the commodity must also bear the interest of people (Fiske, 1990: 20-21). Film as

a commercial culture,

mass produced

a product of popular culture is not only a mass consumption but it is merely translating the active process of American culture within its social system. The correlation between film and American culture has also elaborated by Jonathan Auerbach through his article entitled American Studies and Film, Blindness and Insight . He has stated that fiilm can be a resource for understanding U.S culture. His examination on The Seven Lively Arts by Seldes, shows that,

The Seven Lively Arts sought to collapse the gulf between high and low culture, and in particular made film available for serious analysis by seeing it as an expression of a country’s ideals and values. Movies and the other lively arts were characteristically American in their democratizing potential. ( Auerbach, 2006: 34-35).

Furthermore, he argues that film reflects the national mentality than any other form of expression which must conform to existing mass desires. Film has

beliefs and desires in the society (ibid: 31-39). Therefore, it is clear that film as one of American popular culture products, reveals the contextual meaning of the society’s beliefs and values. Since, this research is mainly about film, semiotic film theory is needed to understand the contextual meaning brought by the movie. The semiotic film theory used in this movie research is the semiotic principal on categories of signs and codes by some semiotic film theorists prominent.

As film consists of many sign and codes, it covertly reveals meaning and polemic. Semiotic film theory is needed to interpret not only the words or sentence but also the social meaning beneath those signs and codes in connection with the problem statements. Before analyzing the principal categories of sign and code in the film, a brief sketch on Saussure theory on general linguistic as the basic knowledge of semiotic film theory is also needed. Saussure’s Course of General Linguistic (1916) provides the most influential account in language studies on how a language works at a given moment as a rule-governed system. He introduced the distinction between signifier and signified. Signifier is produced from the sounds used by a particular language which is arranged in a temporal order. While signified consists of the concept or meaning assigned to any organization of signifier. Thus, a sign is formed when signifier and signified are joined together (Stam, Burgoyne and Lewis, 1992: 6).

In the theory of codes, Christian Metz with his book, Film Language : A Semiotics of Cinema , came to treat cinema and the cinematic text as fields of signification. Here, the heterogenity of codes interacts with one another in ways that are specific and systematic. It determinates at certain specific level of

cinematic discourse and at certain specified level of analysis. Among specifically cinematic codes, he has distinguished codes of editing and framing of lighting, of color verses black and white, of articulation of sound and movement, of composition and so on. While in non cinematic codes, he includes costume, gesture, dialog, characterization, and facial expression. All of these movie elements are the sign and codes which reveal the contextual meaning of the movie (Metz, 1990: 4).

Beside semiotic film theory, socio-cultural approach is needed in conducting this research since the main theme of the movie is about fashion. Fashion is one of American culture products in which it is considered as playing important role to define someone’s personality in the society through their images. Fashion has a close relationship with socio-culture approach since the approach mainly explores the way people act and develop based on their surroundings. It is stated that,

The socio-culture approach are the roles of different ethnic groups, gender and the culture, with all these elements combination, it forms a personality. Socio culture is based upon peoples beliefs and what they stand for. It is the actions that the society choose to do and to become who they are (http://socio-culture1.0.tripod.com/).

Here, fashion as a part of American culture has a great influence toward American society, especially women. Fashion has shaped the way of thinking about women’s image and its influence toward women’s life based upon the society beliefs and values. The socio cultural approach is needed to explore the great influence of American fashion industry toward its society.

As the research of the film is mainly focused on the correlation between women and fashion, feminism approach is applied since it provides many issues of women’s life particularly in American society.

Feminism has given many contributions to the life process of women. By the history women were considered as inferior rather than men. It has closely related to the distinction between men and women as different sex and gender. It is stated that the conflation between sex and gender is used not only to naturalize the differences between men and women but also to substantiate a moral judgement about “women’s proper place”. Hence, the difference between men and women is not mainly about biological distinction but also the roles in the society. The sociological insistence on a distinction between sex and gender is important for feminists and other researchers in political terms because it has signalled the possibility of social and political change.

Gender was developed as a sociological concept in order to emphasize that not only are traits and characteristics at psychological level socially shaped and produced, but also the social, economic and political inequalities that can be observed between women and men are an extension not of biological difference but of particular social relation and context (http://www.iub.edu/~gender/html/classes-spring-graduate.html).

Thomas Laqueur has stated that, as political and social changes increasingly raised, questions about women’s place in the world has been interpreted with the existing of the body. Anatomists have focused on body parts that differenciate the female body from the male body. In turn, this body parts come to stand for difference and to be used as the basis on which to make claims about female inferiority. The “giveness” of the female body as naturally weaker,

deviant and “troubled body”. It is often perceived as a spectacle or fantasy and fetishized within popular culture. In addition, Simone de Beauvoir observed that the female body is considered as an object that is looked into and examined. Thus, it is encouraged to be on show and women are obliged to produce their bodies as adequate and acceptable spectacle (http://www.iub.edu/~gender/html/classes- spring-graduate.html). In this case, fashion industry has supported the idea of women’s inferiority toward their body. Fashion, as a commercial industry, shapes female body as an object of spectacle by its products to bear the demands of American patriarchal socitey.

Since the research is focused on women and female body through fashion, feminism approach that provides many issues about the women’s problem is used as point of view. This point of view is the framework of the research in the context of women’s problem available in TDWP.

H. Thesis Organization

The thesis consists of four chapters and each chapter is divided into several subchapters. There are Chapter I Introduction, Chapter II Literature Review, Chapter III Analysis, and Chapter IV Conclusion and Recommendation.

The first chapter, Introduction, consist of eight subchapters. There are Research Background, Scope of the Study, Problem Statement, Objective of the

Study, Benefits of the Study, Method of the Study, Theoretical Approach and Thesis Organization.

The second chapter, Literature Review, discusses about working women and feminism in America, the correlation between fashion and female body, and some of the film theories and basic elements of cinematography.

The third chapter, Analysis, consists of two main subchapters. They are, the significance of the title: “ Who is the Devil wears Prada” and The Construction of Successful Career Women through Fashion Style. The second main subchapter is divided into three points: Andrea Sach and the Significance of Fashion Transformation, Miranda “The Dress for Success”, and The ambivalence of Gender Roles and Politic of Life Choice through the main characters, Miranda Priestly and Andrea Sach. This subchaper provides the answer of the research questions.

The last chapter, Conclusion and Recommendation, presents the brief explanation of the research result and the recommendation for the next research.

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

As mentioned in chapter I, this research is aimed to answer how the construction of successful career women in the great influence of fashion industry and how female body is exploited and objectified by fashion style. Some theories are needed to answer those research questions. Thus, this chapter provides some appropriate theories which are divided into four sub chapters. The first subchapter is a Brief Skecth of Working Women and Feminism in America. It provides the history of working women in America and the influence of feminism toward working women in American’s society today. The second subchapter explains

is film, the third and the fourth subchapter give some explanations on the semiotic film theory and basic terminology in cinematography which appropriate to support the research study

A. A Brief Sketch of Working Women and Feminism in America

The history of working women in America can be traced back from the American experience. The Great Depression in 1930 had given big impact toward American people. Mass unemployment was the common phenomenon and it became the biggest problem. The family income declined, many of them lost their job and become homeless. They should have strategies to survive in that kind of condition. Not only men, women also went to work to support their family needs. As Eshleman said that,

Many upper class women received an education and some works in the profession. Poor women who worked were usually employed as servants. The vast majority women, however were married and worked in the home to meet the needs of their families (Eshleman, Cushion and Basilico, 2007: 260).

In 1941, America went to war and the number of mass unemployment was decreased. During the war many job fields required more employees, including women. “Men were sent overseas, and women were told that it was now their patriotic duty to help out in the war effort by going to work” (ibid: 261). It was their opportunity to earn money in order to fulfill their family needs. They worked in many sectors such as in factories and in some offices.

After World War II, there were many changes in American society, men return to their job and women had to go home to take care of the family. Because

the low birth rates during the depression and war period, the population should be built. Thus began the “baby boom” program, that women should return home and give birth to build up the population. In this period of time, the social status of American people had been changed by the increase of their income. Most American mothers also want to work outside their home. This phenomenon could not be separated from their duty of taking care of the family. Betty Friedan with her influential book at the time entitled “The Feminine Mystique” had successfully brought married women entering labor force, having the right to have their own properties and having the equal opportunity in working, childcare and housework. Sarah M. Evans in her book “Born for Liberty, The History of Women ” has also stated that “The feminine mystique which defined women almost exclusively in terms of wife and mother, functioned smoothly both to shape changes in women’s role and deny their disruptive power” (Evans, 1997: 246). The both position in family and society made the number of single mother, unmarried couples, and women who became head of family increased.

As the community mobilized, the American people including women began to think how to increase the family prosperity. They started to live and look for a job in the cities because the growth of jobs was sifted from agricultural into industrial sectors. By the development of modern technology and industry, various work fields were opened including fashion industry. Women were more attracted to work in fashion industry rather than men. Women had worked in fashion world since the early twentieth century. They worked in garment industry which had grown large and employed women to cut the cloth and operate sewing

machines. Nowadays, fashion has become a large industry in America and mostly affect both men and women’s culture (Eshleman, Cushion and Basilico, 2007: 261-262).

The opportunity of getting a job for women can not be separated from the history of women struggle in America to have the equal position in some ways. In the beginning of America where most of American women did not get education as male did. They used to experience different treatment from male. The different treatments based on sexes are the effects of patriarchal system held by the society. Male has larger chances to develop themselves in many sectors such as social and economics, while women were given less opportunity to reach the better condition. Although there were a little amount of women who had worked, they seemed could not be as equal as men. Jaffe said that “Women have less authority and less autonomy in their work than do men” (quoted in ibid: 263).

Feminism is the root of women struggle in America. Feminism is an idealism and movement as the effect of women’s oppression in a male-centered society/patriarchal society. It is the idea that women should have political, social, sexual, intellectual and economic rights equal to men. It involves various movements, theories, and philosophies, all concerned with issues of gender differences, that advocate equality for women and that campaign for women’s rights and interests. According to Maggie Humm and Rebeca Walker, the history of feminism can be divided into three waves. The first wave was in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second was in the 1960s and 1970s, and the third

the present

( www.pbs.org/newshour/infocus/historycostumes/fashion_history.html). The first wave was focused on the women’s political rights. The term first wave was used after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe

a new feminist movement. Second wave feminism was more focused on social fighting and cultural inequalities to be political equalities. Second-wave feminists saw women's cultural and political inequalities were closely linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal life as political equality and reflecting sexist power structures. Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, it was the movement as a response to “perceived failures” of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements

second wave ( http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/feminist/Womens-Movement.html) . With the emerge of feminism, the condition of American women gradually changed. Nowadays, they have more opportunity to be equal with men in some areas such as social and economics sectors, even some of them feel that feminism is no longer needed because the goal of feminism has been reached. The group that consider feminism is no longer relevant in today’s society is called postfeminist.

Post-feminism describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. The term was firstly used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism . Post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals, although it is still being critical by third wave feminists. Lisa Yaszek in Alison Pepmier examination of the postfeminism and third wave feminism differences notes that postfeminism is a moment “to describe the contemporary moment as

one in which the goals of feminism have been achieved”. While Eliyce Helford identifies postfeminism as “the belief that personal choice and bootstrap efforts can bring women empowerment and equality, when the third wave says...We’ve got a hell of a lot of work to do!...postfeminism says...Go buy some Manolo Blahniks and stop your whining.” It means that third wave and postfeminism are two different terms. Postfeminist tends to rely on competitive individualism and “eschews” collective action. It obscures or makes invisible of women’s oppression such as subjected of violence, and underprivileged both politically and economically. On the other hand, the third wave more focuses on intersectional identities and demands an end to all forms of oppression that keep women from achieving their full humanity. In addition, Susan Faludi in her book “Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women ” (1991) argues that 1980s backlash against feminism has successfully re-defined feminism through its term. According to her, this type of backlash is a historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights ((http://www.charleston.edu/riposte_to_joyce/01.x.html ) .

Postfeminism seems to be the right terms to describe how American women today look likes. Angela McRobbie argues that feminism has successfully made everyone, including women in achieving equality. Postfeminism gives the impression that equality has been achieved. Postfeminism can be clearly seen in such media products such as women’s magazine and some movies. Ally McBeal, Bridget Jones’s Diary and The Devil Wears Prada are the examples of post feminism idea. The characters, mostly women claim to be liberated to choose their

life choice ignoring the gender difference between male and female. Some of them get very good position and facilities in their job. Today, many American women work outside their house with their high education and can choose their interests freely without any interfere. However, Diamond and Quinby in American Feminsm in the Age of Body conclude that the control of patriarchal system is not clear anymore and we can’t blame anyone of invisible oppression. Although patriarchal value still exists in most American culture, now it seems melting with the new concept of women today (Diamond and Quinby, 1984:119).

B. Fashion and Female Body

The term “fashion” usually applies to a prevailing mode of expression, but quite often applies to a personal mode of expression that may or may not adhere to prevailing ideals. Inherent in the term is the idea that the mode will change more quickly than the culture as whole. The term “fashionable and unfashionable” are employed to describe whether someone fits in with the current popular mode of expression. The term “fashion” is frequently used in a positive sense, as a synonym of glamour and style. In this sense, fashion is a short of communal art, in which the culture examines its notion of beauty and goodness. On the other hand, the term “fashion” is sometimes used in negative sense, as a synonym of fads, trends and materialism.

Fashion has changed from time to time as market demand. It can support

someone’s physical appearance in daily life or special events. It is also believed that fashion show someone’s social status and personality. Fashion may vary considerably within a society according to age, social class, generation, occupation, sexual orientation, and geography as well as overtime.

In the beginning of 1950s, fashion has developed into trendsetters for both women and men. Many actress and actors such Marilyn Monroe, Audrey Hepburn, Elvis Presley, James Dean and Martin Brando set fashion trends with their own style. It could be seen from their clothing and hairstyles. The strongest fashion innovator of the 60s was the first Lady Jacqueline Kennedy. It was known as the pop or nod decade. The simple style was accepted by women of all economic levels. In 1966, a French designer, Yves Saint Laurent, introduced the women’s tailored pantsuits but women were not allowed to wear them in some restaurant. In 1969 women were offered some choice such mini, midi and maxi size so fashion would be suit them. Women in the early 70s wore hot pants, a collaboration of miniskirt and pantsuit.

The 1980 was a complicated fashion period because it was greatly influenced by the media and stars. Teenagers sought to look exactly like their idols. When the flash dance came out, tank tops, torn jeans and tight-fitting pants took centre stage. The Adidas sport label was also popular in giving the sporty style for the fashion world. Manolo Blahnik, French shoe designer introduced his fantastical high heels and majestic boots. Dona Karan, an American designer set up her own label for casual look that dominated American ready-to-wear fashion. Fashion tended to new standard of minimalism in the 1990s. The designer label

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Prada became more popular in the fashion industry. The Milanese Company was first established in 1923 by Prada when it was only a firm that sold high quality shoes and leather. In the development, Miuccia Prada, the niece of company’s founder, began to produce ready to wear fashion that become popular brand in America

now ( www.pbs.org/newshour/infocus/historycostumes/fashion_history.html). During the late of twentieth century, fashion began to cross international boundaries. Popular western styles were adopted all over the world. Many designers from outside America had brought big impact on fashion. For fashion, mass media has given great contribution to inform the trendsetter of certain period of time. People are exposed much fashion information and advertisement from any kind of media such as billboard advertising, fashion magazines, newspaper, novel, music and movies. One of the most influential mass media in giving contribution toward fashion development in America was fashion magazine. Through fashion magazine, people could follow the trend of fashion and life style. It brought an idea of culture, beauty, luxurious life style, and fashion trends. The fashion photographs were set in every page of the magazine. Supermodels were in beautiful make up and dress to promote the products or fashion. Fashion show was also covered by fashion magazine and transfigured into detail article. Appearance and performance became important things to a whole generation of urban people. Some influential fashion magazines and newspaper in America such as Vogue, New York Times, USA Today, Seventeen, Cosmopolitan, etc play important role in the development of great American fashion industry.

until

…What began as a small society magazine at the end of the 19 th century became one of the most influential periodicals of the 20 th century and a

fashion and

culture…(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vogue_%28magazine%29 ) .

Women are more attracted to fashion rather than man. This condition tends to make women trapped in the great fashion industry that always surround them. As fashion is closely associated with costume, it can not be separated from the existing of the body. In this case, is female body.

As the patriarchal value influence in most society in the world, female body have been controlled and restricted across civilization to conform to prevailing aesthetic based on the value. Physical appearance within slender body becomes the most important things for women regarding to the male gaze to conform with the prevailing aesthetic. Slenderness is identified with refinement, willpower, and chick, while success for dieting becomes an important form of competition among women within a context where women were encouraged to compete in physical appearance. Brownmiller (1993) in “Women and Body Image” stated that,

“striving for physical perfection (a physical vulnerability that is reassuring to men) was a constant distraction for women, causing them to be self- conscious, and constantly self-monitor and [We are] never quite satisfied and never secure, for desperate unending absorption in the drive for a perfect appearance-call it feminine vanity-is the ultimate restriction on freedom of mine”(quoted in Grogan, 1999: 77).

While Wendy Chapkis argued that women are oppressed by a “global culture machine” made up of the advertising industry, communication media, and the cosmetic industry. Women are entrapped in the beauty system, but that there are opportunities for change if women are willing to accept themselves and their

bodies as they really are. This would involve close examination of the terms “beauty secrets” (the ritual that most women undertake to try to conform to the cultural ideal) and rejection of these in favor of the “natural” body celebration (ibid: 77-78).

In addition, Bordo’s analysis shows that women can not help the beauty system but collude in the system because they are submerged in the culture in which slenderness in women is associated with a specific (positive) set of cultural meaning,

In my work they have been extremely helpful both to my analysis of the contemporary disciplines of diet and exercise and to my understanding of eating disorders as arising out of and reproducing normative feminine practices in our culture, practices which train female body in docility and obedience to cultural demands while at the same time being experienced in terms of power and control (quoted in ibid: 78).

In contrast, Dorothy Smith saw women in an active role in interpreting cultural messages. She argued that women “do feminity” in an active way as a skilled activity. One of the sources to learn the skill of “being feminine” is women magazine especially fashion magazines because it provides many information that actively presented on how to be more attracted. By presenting the women with the perfect model body and telling what women need to do to attain the ideal (diet, exercise and cosmetics), magazine has created the women’s opinion of “being feminine”(ibid: 78-79).

Media, especially fashion magazines become an influential media to conform to the cultural messages (still in the reassuring of men). Slimness or slenderness become the indicator of prevailing aesthetic value for women. This

that requires women to be thin and blonde if she want to be called as beautiful. Media, such magazines brings this myth to be changed time after time. In 1600s until 1800s the myth of beautiful women is different from the myth of twentieth beautiful women. Women were used to be fleshy, full figured, plump and make their waist tiny or hourglass shaped to be called as beautiful as shown in the paintings and photographs made at the time. While in the twentieth century, women started to pay attention to their body and make up when slenderness and make up became fashion covered by the media. They start to compete in physical appearance, exercise in sport and dieting become popular activities of women to fit with the ideal of beauty. The more extreme treatment like liposuction or mesotheraphy is also used to shape the body so that it will look slimmer and more toned without so much treatment. Those facts show that actually female body is controlled by some invisible things that they couldn’t see as a part of culture and controlled by style that affect them (Diamond and Quinby, 1984: 119-122).

Fashion, supermodels and celebrities are new subjects for women to obsess over their body. As female’s bodies recede in spring fashions and celebrities obsession, slender body is also claimed to be a barometer whether a woman is at a healthy weight. Many diet producers always campaign that thin is healthy and promote their products by using some popular artists to influence women’s point of view toward healthy body. By getting a healthy body, women will be campaigned more about getting pleasure and success in their life. They believe that being beautiful and slim can bring them into pleasure and success. This region also has been emphasized by some models and celebrities including

Rachel Zoe, Nicole Richie and Keira Knightley.

(a)

(b)

(a) Keira Knigthley to star in The Beautiful and Damned represents the image