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2.2.1 Gardner 1999 Critical Thinking Model
Gardner 1999, p. 22 states that there are seven different kinds of intelligence, each with its characteristic use:
1. Logico-mathematical: using logical and numerical patterns and
deductive reasoning; used by mathematicians, scientist, and logicians. 2.
Linguistic: Sensitivity to sounds and meanings of words and language abilities; used by writers and literature teachers.
3. Musical: Sense of rhythm, pitch, and melody, and appreciation of
musical expressions; used by musicians. 4.
Spatial : Spatial memory and manipulating and transforming
perception of visual objects; used by artist and architect. 5.
Bodily-kinesthetic: control of bodily movements and proprioceptive abilities; used by athletes and skilled artists.
6. Interpersonal: understanding and dealing with the moods,
temperaments, motivations, and behaviors of other people; used by counselors, social workers, and salespersons.
7. Intrapersonal: understanding one’s own feelings, motivations, needs,
strengths, and weakness; used in guiding one’s own behavior. According to the theory above, Gardner 1999 said that most individuals
use most or all of these kinds of thinking, with verifying levels of skills. And when we engage in complex learning, we use combinations of these different
kinds of thinking.
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2.2.2 David 2000 Critical Thinking Model
David 2000, p. 27 defined that critical thinking involves the dynamic reorganization of knowledge in meaningful and usable ways. It involves three
general skills: evaluating, analyzing, and connecting.
2.2.2.1 Evaluating
Evaluating involves making judgments about something by measuring it against a standard. Evaluating is not expressing a personal attitude or feeling. It
involves recognizing and using criteria in different instances. Recognizing criteria is important when the criteria are unstated; otherwise, the learner is required to
use a publicly available set of standard. It is also important for the students to be able to determine which criteria are appropriate. According to David 2000,
evaluating information involves skills such as: 1.
Assessing information for its reliability and usefulness, and discriminating between relevant and irrelevant information.
2. Determining criteria for judging the merits of ideas or products by
identifying relevant criteria and determining how and when they will be applied.
3. Prioritizing a set of options according to their relevance or importance.
4. Recognizing fallacies and errors in reasoning, such as vagueness, non
sequiturs, and untruths. 5.
Verifying arguments and hypothesis through reality testing.
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2.2.2.2 Analyzing
David 2010 defines that analyzing involves separating whole entity into its meaningful parts and understanding and interrelationship among those parts.
Manipulating partswhole relationship helps the learners understanding the underlying organization of ideas. Analyzing knowledge domains involve skills
such as: 1.
Recognizing patterns of organization. 2.
Classifying objects into categories based on common attributes. 3.
Identifying assumption, stated or unstated, including suppositions and beliefs, which underlie positions.
4. Identifying the main or central ideas in text, data, or creations, and
differentiating core ideas from supporting information. 5.
Finding sequences or consecutive order in sequentially organized information.
2.2.2.2 Connecting
According to David 2010, connecting involves determining or imposing
relationship between the wholes that are being analyzed. Connecting compares and contrasts things or ides, looks for cause-and-effect relationships, and links the
elements. Connecting builds on analyzing because it often compares wholes based on the parts that were analyzed. It involves skills such as:
1. Comparing and contrasting similarities and differences between objects
or events.
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Logical thinking, required to analyze or develop an argument, conclusion, or inference or provide support for assertions.
3. Inferring deductively from generalizations or principles to instances.
4. Inferring a theory or principle inductively from data.
5. Identifying causal relationship between events or objects and predicting
possible effect.
2.2.3 Richard 1992 Critical Thinking Model
Richard ’s conception of critical thinking, like most traditional models,
regards it as “reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” Ennis, 1984, p.4, consisting of skills such as;
1. Grasping the meaning of a statement.
2. Judging whether there is ambiguity in a line of reasoning.
3. Judging certain statements contradict each other.
4. Judging whether a conclusion follows necessarily.
5. Judging whether a statement is specific enough.
6. Judging whether a statement is actually the application of certain
principles. 7.
Judging whether an observation statement is reliable. 8.
Judging whether an inductive conclusion is warranted. 9.
Judging whether the problem has been identified. 10.
Judging whether something is an assumption. 11.
Judging whether a definition is adequate.
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Judging whether a statement made by an alleged expert is acceptable.
According to Richard 1992, these skills occur in three dimensions: logical judging the relationships between meanings of words and statements,
critical knowing the criteria for judging statements covered by the logical dimension, and pragmatic considering the background or purpose of the
judgment and the decision as to whether the statement is good enough for the purpose.
Therefore, the skills of judging the reliability of a statement, for example, involves judging whether a statement makes sense in terms of what it says,
knowing the criteria that make a statement reliable, and understanding the source of the statement and the context which it is used. This is because the critical skills
are critical in different ways in different circumstances.
2.2.4 Richard 2006 Critical Thinking Model
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