LITERATURE REVIEW

F. Translation Quality

Weber states the translated text must be absolutely accurate in meaning, contain all nuances of the original and must be written in clear, elegant language that can be easily understood by readers (1984, p. 3). Meanwhile, Larson quotes there are three main reasons for testing a translation. The translator wants to be sure that his translation is accurate, clear, and natural (1998, p. 486). When a translation product is produced, it does not mean that a translat or‟s duty has completed. A test on the translation product is required since during the translation process, a translator usually works hard and does the best to make a good translation. Basically, each translator is offered some methods to solve the problems during the translation process. It does not matter to those who apply proper methods so that the message is accurate and acceptable. However, it does if the methods are not properly applied so that affects the translation products. S/he probably adds things, which are not necessary, or omits things, which are actually required to exist in the translated text. Therefore, for certainty, a translator is expected not to make mistakes. Hence, TQA is required to produce credible translation products.

To measure a quality of translation product can be conducted through accuracy, readability, and acceptability scale. Immawaty argues accuracy in translation is a kind of source-text-oriented approach to translation. A translation is considered to be accurate if it rightly conveys the message from source language into target language (2004, p. 27). Meanwhile, she sees acceptability in translation as a translation text from the cultural point of view. This measures whether or not a text is culturally accepted in the target readers (ibid). This implies s/he is supposed to make a translated text in his own style, instead of as the way it is expressed in the source sentences, so that the target readers feel reading the translated text as the original text. She suggests the translator to discover his/her own style rather than the way of source text is written to make the translated text as natural as possible to the target readers. In short, acceptability is more concerned with the naturalness of a translated text to the target readers. The last approach is readability. Sakri (in Nababan, 2003: 62) says, “keterbacaan menunjuk pada derajat kemudahan sebuah tulisan untuk dipahami maksudnya.” Readers are judges of texts. Consequently, every translated text is created to be understood to target readers, thus they determine whether the text is readable or not. In other side, Richards et all (ibid) argues, “keterbacaan bergantung pada panjang rata-rata kalimat, jumlah kata-kata baru, dan kompleksitas grammatikal dari bahasa yang digunakan.” The difficulty of reading text is different to each other, that is why to whom a text is translated is required to take into account in translation.

The three scales of translation quality are sustainable part to make a good

Translators have to be wise, and be sure that the intended message is accurately conveyed into target language. Therefore, seeing one is more important than

another‟ necessarily happens, or sacrificing one does too.

G. Subtitling

1. What is subtitles

Gottlieb defines subtitles as transcription of film or TV dialogue presented simultaneously on the screen. He distinguishes subtitling from a linguistic view point, there is intra lingual (within one language), and inter lingual (between two languages) translation. In intra lingual subtitles, a subtitler re-writes the dialogues spoken by the speaker in the screen in their original language. Meanwhile, in inter lingual subtitles; a subtitler has to convey what the speaker tries to communicate in another language. In this process, the subtitler is given scripts of verbal contents from a film, which then, it is to read, to be understood its meaning, and to be re- expressed in another language they intends to communicate. The translated version of subtitles will then be transferred into written form in bottom of the screen within a synchronized image. This enables target audiences to read the translated version, at the same time, they watch the film. That is why subtitles have some constraints to deal with.

2. Constraints in subtitling

The constraints in subtitling involve both technical and contextual

discusses what he calls the formal (quantitative) constraints and textual (qualitative) constraints on television. Textual constraints are those imposed on the subtitles by the visual context of the film or the physical limitation of spaces for subtitles, whereas formal constraints are the space factor (a maximum of two lines are allowed, with some 35 characters each) and time factor (a maximum of 5-6 seconds is considered to be sufficient for reading two lines). The appropriate subtitles must appear synchronous with the picture, since it is made to make the viewers understand the content of foreign film. Anticipating the limited time and spaces for subtitles makes sense if sometimes reduction of text volume becomes a choice to compromise the constraints.

(in Jankansen, 1999: 8-9).

3. Strategy of subtitling

Gottlieb (in Mutakin) proposes a list of strategy dealing with the reduction of the text volume. Those strategies are explained below:

a) Condensation It manages to retain both meaning and most of stylistic features of the original. The transfer from the spoken to written language eliminates some of redundancies automatically and thereby enhances coherence for the viewers.

It is used to cope with large speech volume due to fast speech space. The strategy is characterized by using abridged expressions and reductions in content. The cuts in the SL may result in a loss of either semantics or stylistic content. The message is conveyed with the help of other channels (soundtrack and vision).

c) Deletion It is mainly used to deal with non verbal content. Repetitions filler words and tag questions can be omitted without loss of information to the viewers although it may affect the semantic or stylistic content.

H. About “Sex And The City”

“Sex and the City” is particularly an American cable television series, based in part on writer Candace Bushnell's book of the same name. It is compiled from her columns with the New York Observer. The series is divided up into six seasons altogether, with season 6 as final season of all. The final season consists of twenty episodes.

Format of the show is a drama, romantic, comedy (Dramedy), starred by Sarah Jessica Parker, Kim Cattral, Kristin Davis, and Chyntia Nixon. The show focuses on four women, three in their mid-thirties and one in her forties. It specifically examines the lives of big-city professional women in the late 1990‟s/early 2000‟s and how changing roles and expectations for women affect the characters.

Feminists argue the series is as an example of progress in women's rights and life options. Besides, it is as an example of the effects of corporate culture, marketing and the more individualistic strands of feminism in presenting women's empowerment as mainly tied to achieving coupledom, beauty, and personal upward mobility, rather than collective organization for progressive change (http://en.wikipedia.org).

I. NEOLOGISM

Neologism is newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense (Newmark, 1988: 140). Besides, Newmark (1981, p. 33-34) in his book entitled “Approaches to Translation” categorizes neologism into these following types:

1. Formal, it is completely new words. These rarely occur. Example: “Dickety” is Grandpa Simpson's made up word for twenty in “The Simpsons” series. This occurred in episode 3F19: "Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in "The Curse of the Flying Hellfish".

2. Eponyms, it is based on proper names, including inventors, brand names, etc. Example: “Google”, means an action of searching information from internet via google.com.

3. Derived word, it is formed with productive prefixes („de-„, „mis-„, „non-„, „pre-„. „pro-„, and etc), and suffixes („-ism‟, „-ize‟, „-ization‟, „-ous‟, and

Example: “Fishism” is coined by one of characters in “Ally McBeal” series namely Richard Fish. It derives from his last name “fish” combined with suffix “-ism”. Besides, “Fergilicious” coined by an American superstar “Fergy” is combined with suffix “ous” next to her name.

4. New Collocation. Baker states, “way of looking at collocation would be to think of it in

terms of the tendency of certain word to co-occur regularly in a given language” (p. 47: 1992). For example, “kill” collocates to ”time” in

English, but, In indonesia, “membunuh” does not, unless as figurative language in literary works. Thus, new collocation is identified to which a word is uniquely attached. Example: “Retro relationship” is coined by Carrie Bradshaw in “Sex And T he City” series. “Retro” collocates with “relationship”, which is to designate a person‟s date in the past. “Heartbreak Warfare” is

popularized by soloist, namely John Mayer, through his song debut.

5 Phrasal (nouns or verbs). Example: “up-load” refers to steps for putting photograph in facebook.com as photo profile or photo compilations.

6. Acronym, this derives from any combination of initial letters or syllables. Example: “DIY” (Do It Yourself) commonly occurs in female‟s magazine, “Go Girl”. Besides, “PDA” (Public Display Affection) is popularized by jazzy and Rn „B Singer, John Legend, in his song title.

7. Blends („Portmanteu‟ words), it is a combination of two words or more.

Example: “vege-step”, is a combination between “vegetarian” and “step” referring to a state of being a vegetarian.

8. Semantic, it is old words with new meanings. Example: “Expiration Date”, the word “date” does not refer to number in calendar, but, it refers to a state of being in relationship with a male/female.

9. Abbreviation or shortened form of words. Example: “Vegan” is “vegetarian” shortened.

A neologism is a word, term, or phrase that has been recently created (or

"coined"), often to apply to new concepts, to synthesize pre-existing concepts, or to make older terminology sound more contemporary. Neologisms are especially useful in identifying invention, new phenomena, or old ideas that have taken on a new cultural context (wikipedia.org).

The usage of neologism is necessary for some purposes. In relation to this, Karavaitseva identifies that neologism is required to give a name to a new object, to remake the existing word for a better use, to save the native language from loanwords/borrowings, to extend the language, or just for fun, expression, self- distinction, and etc.

He also argues that a neologism occurs more often in cultures that are changing rapidly in situations where there is easy and fast propagation of information. Not the time, but the public acceptance makes a big value to neologisms popularity.

Commonly, neologisms are patterned into some following structures:

1. The new terms are often created by combining existing words (compound noun and adjective) Example: peace-powers, fat-free, power player

2. By giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. Example: unhealthful, bouldering

3. Neologisms also can be created through abbreviation or acronym. Example: FYI – For Your Information

4. By intentionally rhyming with existing words or simply through playing with sounds. Example: doodled ------ jew -dled

(in www.kvam.lt/gallery/-klvk/konferencija/karavaitseva.pdf) Overall, the phenomenon of neologism is not bound to what the theory has stated, while the form of neologism is identifiable through many ways beyond the theory too. It is always relevant to consider language as modifiable and extendable thing. Over years, the developments, concerning to approaches of neologisms, are still possible.

J. RELATED STUDY

This research is inspired by research entitled, “The Analysis Of Translating Neologisms In Novel “Harry Potter And The Order Of Phoenix” By JK. Rowling conducted by Vita Hapsari Ardiani. The aims of her research are to find out the type of neologisms that are commonly found and analyzed the translation procedures applied by the translator in translating neologisms in novel “Harry Potter and The Order of Phoenix” by J.K. Rowling. In this research, the

researcher employs a descriptive qualitative method with a purpose to describe the aims of the research. The data are taken from novel “Harry Potter and The Order of Phoenix” and it is categorized into twelve types of neologisms proposed by Newmark. Besides, the translation of neologisms is analyzed using Newmark‟s translation procedures. The data analysis discovers two conclusive findings as follow. There are 233 neologisms found in the novel. The most common type of neologisms found here is the collocation neologism. It reaches 45.5% from the total population. The second place is new coinages, which reaches 34.3 % from the total population. While in translating the neologisms, the translator of the novel “Harry Potter and The Order of Phoenix” used translation procedures as follows: transference, transposition, naturalization, descriptive term, functional term, literal translation, notes and couplet. And the most translation procedures used in every types of neologism is transference, because transference is the easiest way in rendering an unknown concept of a SL to TL. Meanwhile, in this research, the researcher employs fictitious film, in form of “TV Series Sex And The City Season 6”. In the previous research, the researcher deals with neologism of fantasy literature which is totally unknown in reality, while, in this research, the researcher deals with neologisms in fictitious story which have to do with reality. In addition to analyze translation techniques, translation quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability is analyzed as well in this research. Thus, among 52 data found, the translation technique which tends to be employed is literal translation (44.23%), instead of transference. Transference is not applied at all in this research. Besides, the findings concerning with translation techniques are

(11.55%), recognized translation (1.92%) and synonymy (3.83%). Meanwhile, the findings of translation quality are 82.69% data are accurate, 5.76% data are less accurate, and 11.55% data are inaccurate. Whereas, the average score of accuracy scale is 1.28. On the other side, the finding of acceptability scale shows that data 80.77% are acceptable data, 11.54% data are less acceptable, and 7.69% data are unacceptable data. 1.24 is noted as the average score of acceptability scale.