Research Benefits Theoretical Description

7 1. Describing Simple Present Tense errors of students’ writing of Critical Reading and Writing class of English Language Education Study Program Sanata Dharma University. 2. Describing Present Perfect Tense errors of students’ writing of Critical Reading and Writing class of English Language Education Study Program Sanata Dharma University.

E. Research Benefits

Hopefully, this study can be beneficial for the readers and for those who are involved in English Language Education Study Program, especially for: 1. Students By learning through this study which is about an error analysis of Simple Present and Present Perfect Tense in which students usually made, students can learn and understand more how to use and produce Simple Present and Present Perfect Tense sentences well in writing. In short, this study encourages students to improve their writing especially in using Simple Present and Present Perfect by knowing the use of the tense especially Simple Present and Present Perfect provided in this research correctly. 2. TeachersLecturers Hopefully, this study will improve teachers or lecturers in teaching Simple Present and Present Perfect tense. The analysis of the most frequent errors made by the students especially the use of Simple Present and Present Perfect makes teachers 8 or lecturers pay more attention to it. Realizing this, teachers or lecturers can find the most appropriate way of teaching to make students minimize the errors they make. 3. Other Researchers This study can be used as a guide for other researchers who have the same interest with this study. By learning this study, hopefully, other researchers can make better research and improvement according to the future’s needs.

F. Definition of Terms

1. Tense Learning English is closely related to tenses. Tenses have its connection with time. When people talked about tenses, it means that they discuss a time of an event or tragedy. Declerck, et al. 2006 state that tense is a kind of marker verb that is used to show the time of an event. In simple word, tense is used to answer when the event or the tragedy happens. These are the name of English tenses; Present Tense, Past Tense, Future Tense, Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Conditional Tense, and Conditional Perfect. 2. Aspect Unlike tense, aspect does not have its connection with time. It is not referred to the time of utterances. According to Quirk et al. as cited in Kast 2008, they say that aspect refers to the grammatical category which describes the verb action which is used in an utterance. In simpler words, aspect answers how an event or tragedy PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 9 happens. For example two aspects of English, those are perfective and progressive, the perfective shows that the action of something has completed or done but the progressive one shows that the action of something has not completed or it is still in progress. 3. Simple Present Tense According to Azar 1999, there are two functions of using Simple Present Tense. First, Simple Present Tense is used to express habitual activity or event. Second, Simple Present Tense is also applied to inform something factually. When using Simple Present Tense, the verb that is used is V1Vs Verb 1 if the subject is first person and plural and Verb s if the subject is third person and singular. Simple Present Tense has its own pattern. It is S+V1Vs or S+to be is, am, are. For example, Liliana plays badminton. Based on the example, it shows that Liliana likes playing badminton. She has a routine activity or the activity happens repeatedly. Another example: Diane is an English teacher. It informs a fact that Diane is an English teacher and until now she still holds her profession as an English teacher. 4. Present Perfect Tense Azar 1999 states that there are three functions of Present Perfect Tense. First, it is used to express an idea that happened or even never happened before now, and does not have specified time in the past. For example, They have moved to New York. The example does not show any specified time when they moved to New York. It only shows that they have moved to another city without knowing the specified time when they did it. Second, it is also used to express repetition of an activity before now. The specified time of each repetition is not really important. 10 For example, Dono has written five letters to his wife for the last two weeks. From the example, it informs that Dono wrote more than one letter and gave it to his wife. The example does not show the specified time when Dono wrote each letter. It only shows that he has written five letters since the last two weeks. Third, Present Perfect Tense can also be used to express a situation that began in the past and still continues to the present. For example, Bona has had this pair of shoes for two years. The example shows that Bona already has the shoes since the last three years and now she still has it in her hand. The pattern of Present Perfect Tense is S+havehas+V3to be. 5. Error Analysis In this study, the writer will do an error analysis of students’ writing of Critical Reading and Writing class. According to Cook 1993:22, as cited in Sutor 2013:34, ‘Error analysis was a methodology for dealing with data, rather than a theory of acquisition’ Errors here are addressed to sentences that are grammatically incorrect. VanPatten and Benati 2015 say that error analysis is a kind of research which focuses on identifying, describing, and explaining errors of L2 learners. The writer will only focus on Simple Present and Present Perfect tense errors. Afterwards, the writer will analyze the sentences and try to give some corrections of them. 6. Critical Reading and Writing Critical Reading and Writing CRW is a course which focuses on reading and writing skill. In this course, students learn about the process of reading and writing. Critical Reading and Writing is available for students in the fourth 11 semester. Based on the syllabus which was made by the lecturer of PBI Sanata Dharma University, after completing this course, students are expected to be able to develop critical reading skills by comparing and contrasting, self-questioning, monitoring comprehension, summarizing and making a mind map. Besides, this course also encourages students to be able to develop writing skills by generating argumentative essay based on intertextuality, interview, and questionnaire. Panduan Akademik Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma 2012 also states that Critical Reading and Writing is designed to facilitate students to develop their critical reading and writing skills. The product of the students’ writing will be used by the writer as the data of this study. The writer will analyze it and find the errors. 12

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the writer examines some theories that support the research. There are two sections in this part. The first section, the writer presents the theoretical description which contains the description of error including the types which become the focus of this research, simple present tense, and present perfect tense. Then, second section, the writer discusses the theoretical framework of this research. The theoretical framework consists of the description of theories that helps the writer answer the research problems of this research.

A. Theoretical Description

The researcher presents two parts, namely error and writing. Error is necessarily discussed because it is closely related to the focus of this study. Besides, writing deals with the process of writing and aspect of writing which influence someone’s writing.

1. Error

a. The Definition of Error

Talking about learning, error is the next word that would occur. Errors are the common things which are usually made by learners when they were learning. One of the examples is learning English. English as the second language acquisition has its difficulties to learn. It may cause some errors in the process of its learning 13 both orally and literally. Dulay, Burt, and Krashen 1982:138 define ‘Errors are the flawed side of learner’s speech or writing’. Realizing this, errors can be seen or identified by looking at the learner’s speech or writing work. Making errors is something inevitable when learning something, especially learning a language. It is impossible for people to learn a language without doing or committing errors Dulay et al., 1982. Besides, Triestari et al. 2012 say that errors in grammar can be found in sentences when the sentences are not in the correct structure formulation. It is an error of grammar if the sentence is not structurally correct.

b. Error Vs Mistake

Regarding this research which focuses on error analysis, the writer provides the difference between error and mistake. People should be able to differ between error and mistake because it has a different condition. Gass 2013 also says that mistakes are described as a slip of the tongue. In line with what Gass says, Jordan 2004 says, “Corder distinguished between errors and mistakes: mistakes are slips of the tongue and not systematic, whereas errors are indications of an as yet non- native-like, but nevertheless, systematic, rule-based gram mar “ p.204. Based on that statement, it can be stated that mistakes are not systematic or not repeatedly occurred. The one who makes mistakes will realize that he just made a mistake. Gass 2013 states ‘the speaker who makes a mistake is able to recognize it as a mistake and correct it if necessary.’ However, errors are different from mistakes. Gass 2013 describes that error is systematic. He says ‘it is likely to occur repeatedly and is also likely not to be recognized by the learner as an error.’ Besides, according to Gonzales PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 14 2008:281 mistakes are also called as errors of performance while errors itself are defined as errors of competence. Richards 2015:25 says that errors of performance refer to mistakes and errors refer to systematic errors which have relation to the knowledge of the learner. He also states that errors of performance will not be systematic while errors of competence are systematic. Then, Luelsdorff 1986:387 explains that both errors of performance and errors of competence are the results of the process of addition, omission, substitution, and displacement.

c. Error Analysis

Error analysis is used to analyze learners’ error. It is applied in the study of learners’ error which focuses on the second language acquisition. Gass 2013 defines error analysis as ‘a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make.’ According to VanPatten and Benati 2015, error analysis is a kind of research tool which focuses on identifying, describing, and explaining errors of L2 learners. It is closely related to linguistics. It is used to analyze some errors made by the language learners related to the language structure. James 2013 says ‘Error Analysis is a major component of core linguistics’. Besides, Cook 1993:22 also s tates as cited in James 2013:7, ‘Error analysis was a methodology for dealing with data, rather than a theory of acquisition.’ It is closely related to language teaching.

d. Types of Errors

Learning English as second language acquisition makes some students often commit errors. Dulay et al. 1982 state that there are four types of errors, namely, omission, additions, misformation, and misordering. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 15

1 Omission

Omission errors is a type of error which occurs if there are one or more items that do not appear in a well-formed of utterances. Any morpheme or word which does not appear like it should be can be categorized as omission but grammatical morphemes are more frequent to be omitted by learners rather than the content words Dulay, et al. 1982. For example Mary an English teacher the sentence is potential to categorized as omission. Although the sentence is still understandable, it omits grammatical morpheme ‘is’ for present tense or ‘was’ on past form. The sentence should be like this Mary is an Engish teacher Grammatical morpheme like is is word which has a minor role in the case of the meaning of a sentence. Besides, in case of grammar, grammatical morphemes like noun and verb inflections the –s in dogs, the –s in Sister’s, the –ed in watched, the –ing in looking, etc; articles a, the, etc; verb auxiliaries is, can, will, etc; and preposition in, at, on, etc are really important to be used in a sentence. Therefore, if there is an item in a sentence which is absent and making an unwell-formed utterance, it can be stated as omission Dulay et al: 1982. 2 Addition In contrast with omission, Dulay et al. 1982 explain that addition errors are defined by ‘the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed 16 utterance.’ They also state that there are three types of addition errors. Those are double markings, regularizations, and simple additions. a Double Markings The tense formation in English rule shows that the tense marker is on the first verb. If there is an affirmative declarative sentence, the tense marker is the main verb. The main verb is the only verb of the sentence because there is no other verb in the sentence. While, it is different if a sentence needs an auxiliary. The main verb is not the tense marker. The tense marker is the auxiliary. For example She doesn’t buy the book. or They didn’t go to the party. the auxiliaries does and did are the tense marker of the sentence. However, placing the marker on both, the verb and auxiliary, may occur toward learners, for example He doesn ’t goes to school. or She didn’t went there. both the auxiliary and the main verb are marked for the same tense. This type of addition error is called double marking. b Regularizations Regularization errors are ‘those in which a marker that is typically added to a linguistic item is erroneously added to exceptional items of the given class that do 17 not take a marker.’ This error typically happens among learners in the use of regular and irregular forms, for example Budi buyed a book yesterday. or There are five sheeps in the field. the verb buy does not become buyed, but bought; the noun sheep does not become sheeps in the plural, the plural form of sheep is also sheep. This type of addition error has been called as regularization. c Simple Additions There is no specific feature which can be categorized as simple additions. Simple addition errors are addition errors which are not categorized as double marking and regularization. Dulay et al. 1982 states ‘if an addition error is not double marking nor a regularization, it is called a simple addition, for example This is a books. the word books should be book without addition –s because the sentence states that the book is singular not plural. This kind of addition is categorized as simple addition. 3 Misformation Dulay et al. 1982 explain that misformation errors are kind of addition errors which do not have the correct form of the morpheme or structure. There are three types of misformation errors. Those are regularization errors, archi-forms, and alternating forms. 18 a Regularization errors Dulay et al. 1982 say that ‘misformation category are those in which a regular marker is used in place an irregular one.’ For example, the word putted for put or gooses for geese. It is the same case as regularization in addition errors. b Archi-form Based on Dulay et al. 1982, they say archi- form is ‘the selection of one member of a class of forms to represent others in the class.’ The example is an error of using English demonstrative adjectives this, that, these, those. Like for example the phrase that dogs which should be those dogs. c Alternating form Dulay et al. 1982 state that ‘the use of archi-forms often gives way to the apparently fairly free alternation of various members of a class with each other’. So, learners may do alternation in the sentence structure, for example, I seen her yesterday instead of I saw her yesterday or I have gave you instead of I have given you.

4 Misordering

Misordering errors are characterized by ‘the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance’. The morphemes do not take place in where it should be, for example She is a person lazy. the word person is misordered. The sentence should be She is a lazy person. Another example can be seen in this question form PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 19 What John is doing? the correct one is What is John doing? Learners may commit this kind of error because they are usual to hear the phrase -is doing so when they implement it in question form they forget to change into the right order of question form.

2. Writing

Writing is one of four skills that should be learned by learners when they were learning a language. Writing is not only a system which completes in the communication but also it is the main tool for learners in their learning Weigle, 2002:5. Writing is easy but having good writing is difficult. There are several process and aspects to make a good writing.

a. The Process of Writing

To have successful writing, learners requires some steps. Gerson and Gerson 2003 presents three steps of writing. They are prewriting, writing, and rewriting. 1 Prewriting In this step, the learners should have prepared for what they are going to write. Learners should have been ready with the ideas they are going to say. According to Gerson and Gerson 2003, there are three important things of prewriting that writers should do. First, writers are required to determine the objectives of their writing. Learners need to know why they are writing and what they are going to reach through their writing. Second, writers should gather data to communicate the content of their writing. Writers cannot elaborate the content of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 20 their writing unless they get the data on them. The final important thing that writers should do is considering the audience. Considering the audience means that the writers can predict who will become the reader of their writing. Besides, the writers need to understand what their levels of understanding are. It is important because when the writers can answer those questions, they can write based on the reader’s need and it can help the writers to write effectively.

2 Writing

After gathering the data and deciding the objectives, the next to do is writing. Students need to draft first before they write all the idea into a paragraph. Gerson and Gerson 2003 say that there are two things that writers should do when they start to write their document. First is organizing the draft. Organizing the draft means that the writer should arrange the sentences they should write well and understandable so that the readers can understand and follow what the content of the writing is, easily. Next is formatting the text to allow for easy access. After the writers have done with organizing the idea into a good text, they need to consider that the text is acceptable for the readers. In other words, the look of the text or the document is also needed to invite the readers. 3 Rewriting The final step of a writing process is to rewrite the draft. The rewriting step can also be called as a perfecting step. In this step, the writers rewrite what they have made in writing step. According to Gerson and Gerson 2003 ‘to rewrite, you need to revise, revise, and revise again.’ They also state that people who write a 21 document effectively must realize that there are several processes before it. It needs a second or third write.

b. Aspect of Writing

Having good writing should refer to some aspects of writing. One of the aspects is grammar. According to Bram 1995, to have a good writing, learners or students need to write their ideas not only semantically but also grammatically correct. Semantically means that the writers students understand the meaning of the whole paragraph of what they are writing. While grammatically means that the writers express their ideas by using Standard English grammar. Tense is one of the grammar components. The researcher elaborates the theories related to tenses in English and give some explanation on it. 1 Tenses in English Learning English is related to tenses. Tenses refer to time. However, tenses are different with time. According to Decklerck et al. 2006, ‘time is an extralinguistic category.’ It stands independently. Then, they also state that tenses are a kind of linguistic concept. Decklerck et al. 2006 say ‘it denotes the form taken by the verb to locate the s ituation referred to in time.’ There are several names for tenses in English but Simple Present and Present Perfect Tense are the main focus of this research. a Simple Present Tense Simple Present Tense is one of the several tenses which has a function to t ell a fact or a habitual activity. Azar 1999 says, ‘the simple present says that PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 22 something was true in the past, is true in the present, and will be true in the future’. It also expresses general statements of fact and timeless truths. Besides, Azar 1999 also explains that simple present can be used to express habitual or everyday activities. Table 2.1 Examples and Functions of Simple Present Tense Azar : 1999, p.13 Examples Functions a Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. b The average person breathes 21,600 times a day. c The world is round. To express general statements of fact and timeless truths. d I study for two hours every night. e I get up at seven every morning. f He always eats a sandwich for lunch To express habitual or everyday activities. The use of Simple Present to express general statements of fact or timeless truths can be seen in the example a, b, and c. The fact that water consists of hydrogen and oxygen is a timeless truth. In the past, present, or even in the future, water will always consist of hydrogen and oxygen. It is just the same with the example b and also c. It tells about a fact or can be defined as a timeless truth. Besides, the use of Simple Present to express habitual or everyday activities can be seen in the example d, e, and f. Those examples show that someone usually studies for two hours, gets up at seven, and eats lunch with a sandwich. The subject does the activities every day as a habit. O’Dawyer 2006 who is in line with Azar 1999 says that the function of Simple Present is to express action or event which occurs now or shows habitual or timeless. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 23 Each tense of English has its pattern including Simple Present Tense. Simple Present Tense has its pattern. However, people should consider that there are several forms of sentences. The form of sentences can be positive, negative, or interrogative sentences. Simple Present Tense also has its pattern of positive, negative, and question form of sentences. The form of the main verb may be different depending on the subject chosen. The use of the subject in every sentence determines the form of the main verb. The following table will present the positive, negative, and interrogative form of Simple Present Tense sentences. The different types of subjects will determine the form of the verb of the sentence. The following table provides the example of each form of the sentences. Here are the form of Simple Present Tense sentences. Table 2.2 Form of Simple Present Tense Sentences verb Form of Sentence Subject + Verb + OC Positive affirmative They We walk I You He She walks It Negative They We do not walk I You He She does not walk It Interrogative They Do We walk? I You He Does She walk? It The general pattern of Simple Present Tense is S+V1. The V1 will be added –s or –es if the subject is the third person. The table shows that the examples of the third person subject are He, She, and It. Therefore, the verb walk is added s PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 24 becoming walks because the subject is the third person. Then, if it comes to an interrogative sentence, the auxiliary do is used for the first or second person of the subjects and if the subject is third person, the auxiliary which is used is does. Both are the rules in present form. Another pattern of Simple Present Tense is S+to be. Like what the researcher has explained above, Simple Present Tense in using to be has similar rules as Simple Present Tense in using a verb. There are two kinds of to be in Simple Present Tense. Those are is and are. The use of is and are is determined by the subject of the sentence. The following table presents the use of to be of Simple Present Tense. Table 2.3 Form of Simple Present Tense Sentences to be Form of Sentence Subject + to be + SC Positive They We are hungry You I am hungry He She is hungry It Negative They We are not hungry You I am not hungry He She is not hungry It Interrogative They Are We hungry? You Am I hungry? He Is She hungry? It As seen in the table, the third person subjects use is as the to be. Then, the subject They, We, and You use are. Besides, subject I uses am. That is the rule how to use to be in Simple Present Tense according to the subjects of the sentence. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 25 b Present Perfect Tense According to Azar 1999, there are three functions of Present Perfect Tense. It expresses an idea of something which happened or even never happened before now, and does not have specified time in the past, repetition of an activity before now, and to express a situation that began in the past and still continues to the present. The following table will elaborate the functions of Present Perfect Tense including the examples of sentences which use Present Perfect Tense. The examples will be given in each type of the function. The examples provided may help the readers to understand more about the use of Present Perfect Tense. Table 2.4 Examples and Functions of Present Perfect Tense. Examples Functions a They have moved into a new apartment. b I have never seen snow. c I have already seen that movie. To express an idea that something happened or even never happened before now. d We have had four tests so far this semester. e I have met many people since I came here in June. f I have flown on an airplane many times. To express repetition of an activity before now. g I have been here since seven o’clock. h We have been here for two weeks. i I have had this same pair of shoes for three years. To express a situation that began in the past and continues to the present. O’Dawyer 2006:118 states that Present Perfect Tense ‘expresses an activity or event completed in the past but with some relationship to the present’ Present Perfect Tense has relation to both past and present time. According to PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 26 O’Dawayer 2006 the activity of Present Perfect Tense is started in the past. He also explains that although the activity is started in the past, it still has some relationship to the present time. The verb formation of Present Perfect Tense is havehas + past participle V3. The following table will explain how Present Perfect Tense is used in some various subject like first, second, or even third person. The same as Simple Present Tense, Present Perfect also has the pattern of a positive, negative and interrogative form of sentences. Here are the explanations of the use of Present Perfect Tense according to the subjects and the positive, negative and interrogative form of the tense. Table 2.5 Form of Present Perfect Tense Sentences Form of Sentence Subject + havehas + past participleV3 + OC Positive They We have said I You He She has said It Negative They We have not said I You He She has not said It Interrogative They Have We said? I You He Has She said? It Generally, Present Perfect Tense has the same rules as Simple Present Tense. The word have will change into has if the subject is the third person. While if the subject is the first or second person, the verb formation uses have. Then, if the past participle uses to be is, am, are, the formation would be 27 S + HaveHas + been + OC Basically, the rules of using Simple Present and Present Perfect Tense are just the same. The differences are in the functions and in the pattern or the verb formation.

B. Theoretical Framework