Telling summary of the text

21 3 Post-Reading Activity Post Reading Activity aims at consolidating or reflecting upon what has been read and to relate the text to the learners’ own knowledge, interests, or views. The activities in this phase are as follows:

a. Problem solving discussion toward the problem of the text

Problem solving discussion activities encourage students to talk together to find a solution to problem or task. Apart from organizing the groups and conducting feedbanck, the teacher can have the students on their own. b. Doing a word puzzle dealing with the term of the text These require learners to guess, use personal experinece, use their imagination and test their powers of logical reasoning.

c. Telling summary of the text

Have a student retell an entire reading passage in his own words. Encourage other students to ask him a questions after he completes his presentation. d. Holding a small role play Learners are given some choices of what to say and may participate more willingly. 2.1.2.4 Reading Techniques According to Kustaryo 1988:3, reading techniques play an important role in understanding reading materials. They facilitate students who want to read efficiently. A students who has determined what he expects to gain from his PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 22 reading should select a reading technique that best suits his particular purpose. To fulfill particular purpose some techniques of reading are presented. The techniques are follows: 1. Skimming Skimming is a technique used to look for the “gist” of what the author is saying without a lot of detail. This is used if one only wants a preview or an overview of the material. In preview skimming, one reads the introductory information, the heading, and subheading, and the summary, if one is provided. After this skimming, one should decide whether to read the more material throughly and rapidly. Skimming to get an overview is an important skill for college students. They will find that more reading will be assigned and suggested to them to improve their understanding of their fields. By skimming to obtain the “gist” of the material, they are able to overcome their reading tasks. 2. Scanning When a students needs to locate specific information, he might not read carefully or even skim. Instead, he might be able to scan and to find the information he needs. In order to scan efficiently, he should have a clear idea of what he is looking for, where he is likely to find it, and how he can recognize the information when he sees it. 3. Reading with Comprehension Reading with comprehension means understanding what has been read. It is an active thinking process that depends not only on 23 comprehension skills but also on the students’s experiences and prior knowledge. Comprehension involves understanding the vocabulary, finding the relationship among words and concepts, organizing the ideas, recognizing the auothor’s purpose, making judgement, and evaluating.

2.1.3. English for Specific Purposes

2.1.3.1 The definition and Criteria of ESP

According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 19, ESP must be seen as an approach not as a product. It means that ESP is not a method in language teaching learning. However, ESP is an approach to language learning, which is based on learners’ need. The foundation of all ESP is the simple question: why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? Therefore, ESP, then is an approach to language teaching in which all decision as to content and method are based on the learners’ reason for learning. Robinson 1991: 2 proposes numbers of features, which are considered as the “criteria of ESP”. The features are as follows: 1. ESP is ordinarily goal directed People learn English to achieve certain goal. They need English not merely because they are interested in general English, buat because the need it for study or work purpose. Students who are trained to be accountant need English to support their study. Therefore, the purpose of the study is already goal directed. The materials of activities engaged in learning process should be appropriate with the purpose of their study. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 24 2. Need analysis is paramount to design an ESP course It means that the aim of the course is first identified bythe learners need analysis. The purpose of the needs analysis is to identify and specify what the students need in learning English. It emphasize the target of the course goal. 3. In ESP course, the participation are usually adulds rather that children People who learn in an ESP course are normally people who have experiences in learning English. They usually have learnt English. They have learnt for general. They need ESP to continue their English in more specific way related to their study or work. The participants of this study are Accounting students. The basic of their English mostly is moderate, so that the materials design should be designed in a such a way that it will be appropriate for the students. 4. The class of ESP should come from identical learners People who learn in an ESP course must have the same kind of work field of specialist although their ages are different one another. It is not common for an ESP class to have learners with various studies or works. 5. There usually clear time period for the course The objectives should closely specify and be related to the time available. It implies the collaboration and negotiation among those who involved in the course, for example, organizer, teacher, students. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 25

2.1.3.2 Needs Analysis

Need analysis is very important in ESP course. Need analysis differetiates general English and Englsih for Specific Purpose ESP. According to Hutchinson and Waters 187: 53 the needs of general English learner are not specified, for example the schoolchild. However, the difference between ESP and general English is not the existence of a need as such but rather an awareness of the need. This awareness will have an influence on what will be acceptable as reasonable content in the language course and, on the positive side, what potential can be exploited. Hutchinson and Water 1987:55 state that “learner needs include target needs and learning needs.” a. Target Needs Target needs include the target situation in terms of necessities, lacks, and wants. 1 Necessities Necessities are determined by the demands of the target situation, that is, what the learners have to do in order to function effectively in the target situation. 2 Lacks It is also necessary to recognize what the learners know already before conducting the course. By doing so, the designer can decide which of the necessities the learners’ lacks. Therefore, the lacks can be identified and the designer is able to direct that lack. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 26 3 Wants After identifying the learners’ necessities and lack, it is important to consider what the learners’ view of their needs. It is necessary to conduct the students’ wants about the subject. Table 1. Necessities, Lacks, and Wants OBJECTIVE i.e. as perceived by course designers SUBJECTIVE i.e. as perceived by learners NECESSITIES The English for success in Accounting or Economic Studies To reluctantly cope with a ‘second-best’ situation LACKS Presumably areas of English needed for Accounting or Economics Studies Means of doing Economics Studies WANTS To succeed in Accounting or Economics Studies To undertake Economics Studies b. Gathering Information about Target Needs There are number of ways in which information can be gathered about needs. The most frequently used are questionnaires, interviews, observation, data collection and others. However, it is possible to use more than one method to gather the information. It is also important to remember that needs analysis is a continuing process in which the conclusions are constantly checked and re- assessed Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 59 c. Learning Needs According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 62, it is naive to base course design simply on the target objective, just as it is naive to think that a journey can be planned solely in terms of the stating point and the destination. Therefore, it is PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 27 also important to know and plan about the vehicle in order to achieve the destination. This vehicle, concerning ESP course design, is called as learning needs. d. Analyzing Learning Needs To analyze learning needs, we can refer to these following questions as the framework for analyzing learning needs: - Why are the learners taking the course? - How do the learners learn? - What resources are available? - Who are the learners? - Where will the ESP course take place? - When will the ESP course take place?

2.1.3.3 The Classification of ESP

A number of terms for various types of ESP are current and it is useful to know what they mean and what sort of ESP program they describe. They deal with very broad distiction within ESP. Based on the learners’ purpose and on the general nature of the leaners’ specialization, there are two main distictions, which help distinguish ESP situation, namely English for Occupational Purposes EOP and English for Academic Purpose EAP. English for Occupational Purpose is English in which the participants need it to use English as part of their work or profession. For example, English for Doctors. The learners need English to talk and respond to patients. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 28 English for Academic Purpose is English in where the participants need it to process their study. The language taught may be based on particular disciplines at higher level of education. For example when the students specialize in study or intends to specialize pre-study in a particular subject. This study concerns with designing a set of web based English reading materials for Accounting students in Sanata Dharma Univesity. Therefore, the terms English for Accounting Students is a part of English for Academic Purposes EAP. The division of English for Specific Purposes can be cllarified as follows: Figure 3. Divison of English for Specific Purposes Hutchinson Waters , 1987: 62 ELT English Language Teaching ESL English as Second Language EMT English as Mother Tongue EFL English as Foreign Language EBE English for Business Economics GE General English ESP English for Specific Purposes EST English for Science Technology ESS English for Social Science English for Academic Purposes English for Occupational Purposes EOP EAP EAP EOP English for Accounting Students 29

2.1.4. Developing the Syllabus

2.1.4.1 Definition of Syllabus

According to Yalden 1987: 19 a syllabus defined as a plan which the teacher convert into a reality of classroom interaction. Whereas, Robinson 1991: 34 states that “a syllabus is a plan of work and thus essential for the teachers as a guideline and context for class content.” Meanwhile, Widdowson in David Nunan, 1988: 6 points out that a syllabus is simply a framework in which activities can be carried out a teaching device to facilitate learning. The writer defines a syllabus as a statement of the plan. The function is to guide the teacher to select the materials based on the definition of objectives, the level of the students and duration of the course. A syllabus takes an important role for the teacher in designing the material. Moreover, it emphasize how the plan should be applied into the reality.

2.1.4.2 The Importance of Syllabus

According to Nunan 1988, there are several reason why a material designer should establish a syllabus. The reasons are as follows: 1. Syllabus provides basis for the dividion of assessment, textbook, and learning times. 2. Syllabus makes the language-learning task appear manageable. 3. Syllabus serves as a map, which gives direction in language learning. 4. Syllabus is an implicit statement, which gives direction in language and learning. 30 5. Syllabus provides a set of criteria for materials selection andor writing. 6. Syllabus provides a visible basis for testing.

2.1.4.3 The Components of Syllabus

Reflecting on the Curriculum of 2006, Accounting Department proposes some components, which should be included in a syllabus. The components of a syllabus are as follows: 1. General Objective The general objective is the basic abilitiesskills, which the students should have, in a learning process. The formulation of general objective in a syllabus is intended to guide the lecturer or syllabus designers to formulate the learning objectives to be a learning experiences so that the arrangement of learning experiences can be appropriate to the formulated goals. 2. The main topics The placement of the main topics in the syllabus function as a description or outline of a set of materials. The chosen topics have to support general objective. 3. Learning Objectives The formulation of the learning objectives in a syllabus is important. It is very useful to remind the lecturer about the learning objectives which should be achieved related to the topic. The elements of learning objectives include the learning outcomes, namely the statements of the 31 expected performances after the students experience the learning process in certain competence. 4. Indicators Indicators are the spesific form of learning objectives. If the students can achieve the formulated indicators, the learning objectives can automatically be fulfilled. 5. Learning experience In order to guarantee that there is an effective teaching learning process, the syllabus designer should formulate learning experiences, which the students will undergo. In the syllabus, the learning experiences includes the arrangement of the activities, which the students should do in order to achieve the learning objectives. 6. Time allocation In order to be able to plan the learning process, the duration of time needed to achieve the formulated basic competence should be organized. The organization of time depends on the time provided for coducting the whole learning process. 7. Sources The learning sources, which are considered to be effective to support the students’ learning process are books, magazines, articles, newspapers. 32

2.1.5. Web

2.1.5.1.Definition of Web Oxford dictionary defines a website or web site as a collection of related web pages, images, videos or other digital assets that are hosted on one web server, usually accessible via the Internet. Information on the Web is organized in units called Web pages, which are similar to printed documents but that contain hypermedia features. A website consists of a set of interrelated pages usually operated by a single entity Newby, 2000e: 59 The pages of a website can usually be accessed from a common root URL called the homepage, and usually reside on the same physical server. The URLs of the pages organize them into a hierarchy, although the hyperlinks between them control how the reader perceives the overall structure and how the traffic flows between the different parts of the site. Some websites require a subscription to access some or all of their content. For examples, subscription sites include many business sites, parts of many news sites, academic journal sites, gaming sites, message boards, Web-based e-mail, services, social networking websites, and sites providing real-time stock market data. Because they require authentication to view the content they are technically an Intranet site. 33 2.1.5.2.The role of web in the reading process Strickland 1987: 1 states that “Since containing texts, images, videos or other digital assets hosted on one web server and accessed via the Internet, website is able to maximize the readers’ attention, to present new materials, to provide immediate feedback, to keep records in progress, and to help free the teacher for other instructional duties.” In many ways, the most effective reading instruction is that which provides students with an optimal set of conditions in which to learn. That set of condition results from an orchestration of method, materials, and classroom context. 2.1.5.3.Web as a tool: word processing, utilities, assessments, and data bases A word processing is the general term for software program that permit user to write, edit, store, and print text. There are programs with varying levels of sophistication available for just about every computer on the market McWilliams, 1983. A powerful tool for both teachers and students engaged in creating text, word processing is a computer application whose potential is just beginning to be tapped Strickland, 1987b: 13. Teacher utility packages enable computer novices to tailor software to students’ academic needs. They provide frameworks consisting of an activity format replete with graphics and reinforcement and directions for supplying the content to be produced on or off the computer Strickland, 1987b: 31. The need to cope with information overload and excessive paperwork has caused most computer users to investigate computerized filling systems for home and professional purposes. While initially time consuming to prepare, these filing PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 34 system has become an efficient means for retrieving the most obscure information Strickland, 1987c: 43.

2.1.5.4. Web as a tutor: drill and practice, interactive learning

Newby 2000f: 166 states that, “Drill and practice is designed to help learners master already introduced basic skills or knowledge through repetitive.” According to Newby 2000h: 166, the computer offers significant advantages: Interactivity. The computer can present many problems and require students’ responses. Immediate feedback. The computer can immediately inform the students if an answer is right or wrong, and, in a well-designed program, tell the learner why. Many drill and practice program automatically recycle missed items until they mastered. Infinitive patience. Computer drill and practice program can go all day without getting tired or irritable. Variable difficulties. The computer can adjust the level of difficulty. This might be set by the teacher or by the students, or the program may just automatically base on the students’ performance. Motivation. Through the use of challenge and gaining elements, or just because it is on the computer, a computer drill and practice program may be motivating to students than similar paper-and-pencil exercise. 35

2.2. Theoretical Framework