22 thought: it is itself a way of thinking, of developing ideas, trying them out,
arranging them, testing them. According to Brown 2004, in the field of second language teaching,
second language learners are expected to write coherent essays with artfully chosen rhetorical and discourse devices. In assessing students’ writing ability, it
should be clear the objective or the criterion, what should be tested: handwriting ability? correct spelling? writing sentences that are grammatically correct?
paragraph construction? logical development of main idea? All of these are possible objectives. Each objective can be assessed through a variety of tasks.
7.
Teaching Techniques
In order to design learning activities to develop students’ ability to use tenses, the researcher focused on the theories of Direct Method DM, Total
Physical Response TPR, Audioligual Method ALM, and Cooperative Language Learning CLL. Based on those theories, the researcher would make
different design of learning activities to learn tenses. The researcher would use the principles of learning and teaching activities of those theories in order to create
design of learning activities to learn tenses. Here, the detailed explanation of the theories of Direct Method DM, Total Physical Response TPR, Audioligual
Method ALM, and Cooperative Language Learning CLL are presented.
a. Direct Method DM
According to Richards and Rogers 2001, direct method is widely known as natural method. Why it is natural because it is learning by doing or using
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23 second language directly. It also refers to learning second language should parallel
to learning first language. Richards and Rogers 2001 stated the principles and the procedures of direct method. They are:
1 Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in target language. 2 The materials were only everyday vocabulary and sentences.
3 Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and
students in small, intensive classes. 4 Grammar was taught inductively.
5 New teaching points were introduced orally. 6 Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and
pictures, abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas. 7 Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8 Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
b. Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response TPR is a language teaching method built around coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through
motorphysical activity. According to Asher 1977 as quoted by Richards and Rogers 2001, TPR reflects a grammar-based view of language. He views the
centrality of verbs as used in imperatives; verbs are as central linguistic motive around which language use and learning are organized.
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24 Ashers learning hypotheses:
1. The Bio-Program a. A specific innate bio-program for LL defines an optimal path for L1 and L2
development. b. L1 and L2 learning are seen as parallel processes: L2 learning should reflect
the naturalistic processes of L1 learning. 2. Brain Lateralization
TPR is directed to right brain learning. Right brain is where language activities are centralized. Left brain is where language functions are
comprehension and speech production. Right brain activities must occur before left hemisphere can process language for production. Therefore, adult second
language learning combines the two learning which activate right-hemisphere motor activities; left watch and learn.
3. Reduction of stress L1 acquisition takes place in a stress-free environment, but in L2
acquisition or adult language learning environment, it causes considerable stress and anxiety. Therefore it makes them parallel. It is better to focus on meaning
interpretation through movement rather than language forms. The general objectives of TPR are to teach oral proficiency at a beginning
level through comprehension of imperatives. A TPR course aims to produce learners who are capable of an uninhibited communication that is intelligible to a
native speaker. Major activities of TPR are imperative drills to elicit physical actions by the learners. Other class activities are role plays centering on everyday
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25 situations and slide presentation for narration, followed by commands,
questions. Reading and writing, as follow up to imperative drill, are used to consolidate structure and vocabulary.
Based on the theory of TPR, it could be concluded that TPR was appropriate method to help the students develop their ability to use simple past
tense. Using some movement in learning a tense would help students memorize the form of the sentences and the tense of those sentences easily.
c. The Audiolingual Method
