2
and gave three mechanisms about emission reduction to be adopted by the parties. They
include the Joint Implementation JI, the Clean Development Mechanism CDM, and
International Emission Trading IET Haites and Aslam, 2000.
Worries about carbon dioxide based on research show that at pre-industrial time, carbon
dioxide concentration was about 280-290 ppm whereas the present concentration is
approximately 350 ppm. Carbon dioxide that causes greenhouse effect is originated from fossil
fuel burning called anthropogenic. It is proved by the comparison between the amount of C-12
isotope and C-14 isotope. C-12 isotope is a transformed product of C-14 from organic matter
for centuries Bowen, 1991. Fossil fuel contains C-12 rather than C-14 therefore higher C-12
amount in atmosphere shows that the present CO
2
is caused more by fossil fuel burning. Greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide, in fact,
has been realized since 1861 by John Tyndall. Carbon dioxide is relatively transparent to the
short-wave radiation received from the sun, but is relatively opaque to the long-wave radiation
reflected back into space. He speculated that carbon dioxide and water vapour changes in
composition could cause mutations of climate. He also measured absorptive properties of
chemicals such as nitrous oxide, ozone, and methane, which are now recognized as
greenhouse gasses. Next prediction was in 1890 from Svante Arrhenius about the consequence of
coal burning during the industrial revolution and the doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide
content, which might lead to a 5
o
C global warming Bowen, 1991. Interactions between
anthropogenic greenhouse gasses result in greater impact to plant rather than greenhouse gas
individual impact, for example, between SO
2
and NO
2
and between ozone and SO
2
. Interactions between greenhouse gasses and climatic
condition also add stress to plants Heber et al. 1995.
The increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere results changes in natural
disturbance, insect herbivores, species composition and diversity, and productivity.
These changes remain nonlinear responses to direct and indirect effect to the plants. CO
2
enrichment has effect on photosynthesis, increasing of temperature, soil moisture
changing, C-N ratio of the plants tissue, and growing season changing Clark and Reid, 1993;
however, the effects can be advantageous or disadvantageous. U.S EPA reported in 1989
about climate change of aggregate economic impacts on agriculture that was predicted by the
Goddard Institute Global Circulation Model. Without considering higher CO
2
effect on photosynthesis and improved water-use
efficiency, it estimated that net agricultural loss was US 5.9 billion; however, when considering
those two factors, it estimated that net agricultural gain was 10.6 billion Fisher and
Hanemann, 1993.
Global concern about ecological problems and their impacts on human have resulted new
paradigm on how people consider about his relation to nature. From control of dominance
over nature to in harmony with nature, from economic growth orientations to non-material
goals or sustainability and from consumer culture altered to basic needs or recycling habit are
examples of the new paradigm Redclift 1981 in Stehr 1999.
2.2. Issues on Cidanau watershed
Cidanau watershed is located in southern part of Serang, between 6
o
07’30’’-6
o
18’00’’ south and 105
o
49’00’’-106
o
04’00’’ east See map on Figure 1.. Cidanau watershed covers
five kecamatan in Kabupaten Serang and one kecamatan in Kabupaten Pandeglang Appendix
4 and is important for the new province of Banten. It supplies water for domestic and
industrial uses for the city of Cilegon. Water from Cidanau is collected to a dam near Cilegon
through underground pipe then pumped to Krenceng Water Treatment and Reservoir
Utomo, 1996.
The agricultural potency of this site is the climate type and the farm-based community. The
climate type is B1 according to Schmidt and Ferguson climate classification and D4 according
to Oldeman classification. The climate means according to Yonny Koesmaryono Handoko
1995 that this area is a humid area with tropical rain forest and the potency for rice planting is
once per year with secondary crop palawija rotation. Other agricultural potency of the
watershed area is the fact that about 83 of the people there work in agricultural sector Bapeda
Serang, 1999.
3
Figure 1. Map of Kabupaten Serang Bakosurtanal, 2000 As mentioned before, Cidanau consists of
two nature reserves, Rawa Danau and Tukung Gede Mountain. Rawa Danau was gazetted as
nature reserve in 1921. The importance of swamps is, it can store water and release it during
the dry season and absorb excessive water during the rainy season Creemers and Postema, 1992;
however, it also faces same problems as Cidanau. In addition, noxious exotic species are introduced
to the lake such as water hyacinth or eceng gondok Eichhornia crassipes, Salvinia molesta,
and Mimosa pigra, which can block water flow. Melisch et al. 1993 According to Creemers and
Postema 1992, the 2,250 ha nature reserve is too small to stand any increase in agriculture,
grazing, fishing, poaching, or firewood cutting disturbances.
Besides Rawa Danau, the watershed consists of another nature reserve, the Tukung Gede. It
was gazetted in 1979. With its two nature reserves, Cidanau watershed faces deforestation
like other forests in Indonesia do Rahadian, 2003. Cidanau, like other Indonesian forests
elsewhere has been facing deforestation problems for years. Sunderlin et al. 1999 mentioned that
the pressures come from shifting cultivation method, tree crop production rubber,
transmigration, population density, and logging and timber plantations. These are cautious
because watershed rehabilitation costs are more expensive than watershed conservation costs
Asdak, 1995. Regional Planning Board Bappeda Serang
reported that several active scheme have been taken in Rawa Danau area including reforestation
of 200 ha by PT Perhutani 1986, re-greening of 2188 ha by Forest Department 1987,
rehabilitation and reforestation of 500 ha 19923, replanting of plantation trees of 350 ha
19934 Utomo 1996. However, land clearing and illegal land occupation are still the main
problem. FKDC report indicated that problems faced by Cidanau, erosion and siltation, and
utilization of chemicals are the cause of eutrophication Rahadian, 2003.
Hopefully the stakeholders of Cidanau watershed can reach progressive agreement about
compensation for upper community’s environmental services. The scheme started in
2005 and taken place in Kelurahan village Cibojong, Kecamatan Padarincang, and
Kelurahan Citaman, Kecamatan Ciomas. The program is held in 25 ha private garden land in
each village Rahadian, the director of NGO Rekonvasi Bhumi, pers. comm.. The payment
costs IDR 175 million for five year period. PT KTI only pays private landowners of two villages
who have 500 treesha. The villages were chosen because of its position. Citaman is in Mt. Karang
slope in east side of southern part of Cidanau and Cibojong is in Mt. Aseupan slope in west side of
4
southern part of Cidanau Priyanto, staff of Institute of Environment Technology-Indonesian
Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, pers. comm..
The scheme is intended to private land managed as garden. Most of garden in Cidanau
are planted as agroforest. Well known ecological functions of agroforest are as local species
conservation Hairiah et al., 2003, water and soil conservation Young 1989, and carbon sequester
IIED, 2000. Therefore, private garden in Cidanau also plays role as carbon sequester.
The importance of the compensation scheme stated by Asdak 1995 that a good watershed
management occurs when all costs and benefits of the activities are distributed evenly among the
parties i.e. the government, the community group, and local society. In addition, the benefits
from ecological improvement from activities held in one area should be returned to the area to keep
or improve productivity there, and they should still be suitable to soil and water conservation
principles. There is a conclusion from Ferraro and Simpson 2005 that private landowners will
devote their holdings to whatever activity provides them with the greatest benefits: purely
financial, purely aesthetic, purely ethical, or combination. People cannot be expected to
conserve unless they are compensated.
2.3. Net primary production NPP
