Literature Review THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
of contents are also examined. Then, skimming the textbook in order to see the organization, topics, and visuals. Similarly, McDonough and Shaw
suggest such method they called the external evaluation. This method also examines ‘blurb’, introduction, and table of contents. The aim is to examine
the organization of the textbook. Through this method, we know the intended audience, the proficiency level, the context, the presentation and the
organization of each unit or lesson, and the aut hor’s belief about language and
methodology. The other aspects analyzed in this method are whether the textbook is used as a main resource or a supplementary resource, the
availability of a teacher’s book, the inclusion of a vocabulary list, the visuals and the layout, whether or not it contains cultural biases such as minority
groups and women, and the inclusion of audiovideo materials and test.
9
The other method is the checklist method. This method use a checklist consisting of some criteria or categories referred to a textbook. The
advantages of using checklist are systematic, cost effective, the information gained is a convenient format, and explicit.
10
The last is the in- depth method. It is the deeper analysis on the author’s
views about learning and values as the basis of the materials. In addition, this method also refers to learners needs and interest, learner approach to language
learning, and teacher’s approach to teaching and learning in classroom.
11
Like internal evaluation suggested by McDonough and Shaw, this method aims to investigate whether the author’s claim in external evaluation is in line
with the internal consistency and organization of the materials. The textbook analyst have to examine at least two units to see the presentation of language
skills, the sequencing and grading of the materials, the types of reading,
9
Jo McDonough and Christopher Shaw, Materials and Methods in ELT; A Teacher’s Guide,
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003, 2
nd
Edition, pp. 63 - 66
10
Ian McGrath, op. cit., pp. 26 - 27
11
Handoyo P. Widodo, Textbook Analysis on College Academic Writing, TEFLIN Journal, Vol.18, No. 2, 2007, pp. 109 - 122
listening, speaking, and writing materials, the appropriateness of tests and exercises in context, whether or not the materials cover different learning
styles, and the balance in use of the materials for both students and teachers.
12
In addition, Littlejohn and Windeatt cited in Nunan points out six perspective in evaluating textbooks.
- The general or subject knowledge contained in materials. - Views on the nature and acquisition of knowledge.
- Views on the nature of language learning. - Role relations implicit in materials.
- Opportunities for the development of cognitive abilities. - The values and attitudes inherent in the materials.
13
The first perspective is the content area of the textbook. It includes fictionalized characters and events, general interest, instructional materials,
the language itself, and literature. The other is the views on the nature and acquisition of knowledge. It can be seen from organization and presentation
and of the materials. The views on the nature of language learning refers to an examination of teaching materials. The role relation is the amount of
initiative and the extent to which students participate actively in the learning process.
The next is the opportunities for cognitive development. It emphasis on the accumulation of linguistic knowledge through active approach. Learners
are challenged to interpret and negotiate meaning in problem solving activities. The last is the values and attitudes inherent in the materials. It
focuses on the sexism, racism and so on which may be presented in the textbooks. Like Keith states that social content have to be considered such as
racial and sexual biases in the textbooks.
14
12
Jo McDonough and Christopher Shaw, op. cit., pp. 67 - 70
13
David Nunan, Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers, London: Prentice Hall, 1991, p. 209
14
Sherry Keith, “The Determinates of Textbook Content”, in Philip G. Altbach eds., Textbooks in American Society, New York: State University of New York Press, 1991, p. 54
Based on the explanation above, textbooks analysis becomes a necessary as there are many textbooks published in Indonesia. It may be quite difficult
fo select a textbook which is the best for all students who have several characteristics. They may have different needs, knowledge background,
learning style, even different culture. Textbooks can be analyzed from some perspectives. One of them is
social or cultural values. This study focus on such perspective that examines the representation of gender which refers to the impressionistic method for
textbook analysis. 2.
Gender a.
Understanding of Gender It is quite difficult to distinguish between gender and sex. Both of them
are related each other. Crawford and Unger define sex as “biological differences in genetic co
mposition and reproductive anatomy and function”, whereas, gender is “what culture makes out of the ‘raw materials’ of
biological sex”.
15
Therefore, sex is biologically determined, but gender is socially constructed.
Additionally, Kramer states in her book that “gender is the totality of
meanings that are attached to the sexes within a particular social system”.
16
Also, according to Santrock “gender is the sociocultural and psychological dimensions of being female or male”.
17
15
Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger, Women and Gender: A feminist Psychology , New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004, fourth edition, p. 21
16
Laura Kramer, the Sociology of Gender, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, Third Edition, p. 185
17
John W. Santrock, Educational Psychology:update: Preparing for PRAXIS and Practice, New York: McGraw Hill, 2006, p. 153
In conclusion, gender is the roles of men and women constructed both socially and culturally. The roles teach people how to behave as a female or
a male differently. It also construct people’s views on themselves, how they feel, how they think, and how they interact in society. People can not choose
whether they were born as females or males, but they can decide whether they behave as females or males.
b. Gender and Language
The relationship between gender and language is a common issue. Different roles of female and male affect the way they use a language.
Wardaugh describes women’s speech as being different from that of men. Men’s speech usually provides the norm against which women’s speech is
judged.
18
In addition, women tend to use color words such as mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, and magenta, but most men do not. She also
maintains that adjectives such as adorable, charming, divine, lovely, and sweet are also commonly used by women, but only very rarely by men.
Women are also said to have their own vocabulary for emphasizing certain effects on them, words and expressions such us so good, such fun, exquisite,
lovely, divine, precious, adorable, darling, and fantastic.
19
Therefore, gender affects people
’s behavior in using a language. In English grammatical matters, the intonation patterns of men and
women vary, women using certain patterns associated with surprise and politeness more often than men.
20
Moreover, women may answer a question with a statement that employs the rising intonation pattern usually associated
with a question rather than the falling intonation pattern associated with
18
Ronald Wardaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Oxford: Blackwell Publisher, 2002, 4
th
edition, p. 315
19
Ibid, pp. 316 - 317
20
Ibid, p. 319
making a firm statement. Women do this because they are less sure about themselves and their opinions than are men.
Besides, language also reflects power and status in a society. It is supported by Weatherall that language reflects men
’s power and social advantages, also women’s lack of power and social disadvantages.
21
For example, in English language, masculine forms such as chairman, mankind,
fireman, and guys are used to refer to people in general or unspecific gender person. Conventionally those forms, masculine generics, can refer both men
and women. However, it also can be interpreted as excluding women. That indicates women’s lack of power, and they are likely ignored.
Further, male dominance in language is also found in a feature of naming convention that defines women in term or their relationship with men.
22
For example, a wife adopts her
husband’s surname upon marriage. Also, the titles preceding women
’s names have traditionally varied according to whether they are married or not Mrs or Miss.
Nevertheless, men’s title Mr that comes before men’s names are not considered their marital status.
Another feature of English that has been criticised for trivializing women is metaphorical language. Metaphors about women, including immaturity
e.g. babe, animals e.g. bird, bitch, clothing e.g. blue stocking, bit of skirt, food e.g. tart, sweetie pie, vehicles e.g. town bike and furniture e.g.
mattress. Also, animals are used as a source of metaphors for men as well as women, but the animals used to refer to women tend to be either
domesticated e.g. cats, kittens, chickadees or hunted for sport e.g. foxes.
23
21
Ann Weatherall, Gender, Language and Discourse, New York: Routledge Inc., 2002, p. 2
22
Ibid, p.21
23
Ibid, pp. 25 - 26
In order to avoid such sexist language, gender is marked in English by using suffixes. Two common suffixes usually used to indicate females are
-ess e.g. Actress, waitress and -ette e.g. suffragette, nymphette. Additionally, The use of an adjunct e.g. woman doctor, male nurse is a less
obvious technique for indicating the conventional gender of the term. In conclusion, gender and language are corelated each other. The
influence of gender in language, especially English, is obvious. Gender affects females’ and males’ behavior in using the language. Moreover,
language reflects power and social status. In English, men’s dominance is
found is some features. While, women seems to be ignored and trivialized. c.
Gender Stereotypes People usually portray women and men differently although they are
actually the same as human. The image of women and men they think may reflect their beliefs and attitudes. Men is usually assumed as having higher
position than women. Men’s activities are considered more valuable than women’s although the activities are similar or the same.
24
Such beliefs about women and men reflects stereotypes.
Stereotypes are general views about the characteristics of a group of people.
25
Some people are categorized into a particular group that has similar characteristics. The stereotypes of the group can be both positive and
negative characteristics.
26
For example, it is common that women are described as dependent and passive. Furthermore, they are also interested in
gossip, fashion, and shopping. However, men refer to the opposite
24
Judith Lorber, “the Social Construction of Gender”, in Susan M.S. eds., Women’s Voices, Feminist Visions: Classic and Contemporary Reading, New York: McGraw Hill, 2007, p. 142
25
Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger, op. cit., p. 49
26
Robert A.Baron, Nyla R.B., and Donn Byrne, Social Psychology, Boston: Pearson Education, 2008, twelfth edition, p. 191
characteristics to women such as independent and active. Those beliefs are then called gender stereotypes.
Gender stereotype is general assumptions about different characteristics of women and men. Lips defines gender stereotype as “socially shared
beliefs that certain qualities can be attributed to individuals based on their membership in the categories female or male”.
27
Additionally, Matsumoto and Juang explain that gender stereotypes are psychological or behavioral
characteristics referring to males or females.
28
However, not all individual ’s assumption about men or women are
considered as gender stereotypes. Those believes should include some characteristics. The characteristics of gender stereotypes are in the
following:
Groups that are the target of stereotypes are easily identified and relatively powerless.
People largely agree about the characteristics of a stereotyped group.
Stereotypes imply a covert comparison between groups, to the
disadvantage of the stereotyped group.
Misperceptions appear to be the product of information processing; however, motives to preserve one’s self, one’s group, and the social
system in which one lives are also important.
Misperceptions are difficult to modify, even when the person who holds the stereotypes encounters many disconfirming examples.
People are largely unaware that they stereotype, and they deny that
stereotype characteristic of their group apply to themselves.
29
In addition, gender stereotypes have some components consisting of personal traits, social roles occupation, behaviors, and physical
27
Hilary M. Lips, A new Psychology of Women: Gender, Culture, and Ethnicity, New York: McGraw Hill, 2003, second edition, p. 18
28
David Matsumoto and Linda Juang, Culture and Psychology, Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 2008, fourth edition, p. 149
29
Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger, op.cit., p. 50
characteristics appearance.
30
The first, the personal traits of women and men usually refer to the opposite adjectives. The different traits of women
and men are classified in two categories, instrumentality and affective traits. Instrumentality is considered as men’s traits such as active, objective,
independent, aggressive, direct, unemotional, dominant, and competent. Whereas, affective traits refer to women’s characteristics such as expressive,
warm, and sensitive, nurturant, concern about others, and concern more for people than things. Likewise, Richardson describes women as immature,
incompetent, and incapable, but she describes men as mature, complete, and competent.
31
It shows that women and men are stereotyped as having opposite traits. However, the stereotypes shows that men seems to be better
than women. The following are common traits that are usually associated with women
and men.
Table 2.1 Common Traits Associated with Women and Men
32
Female traits Male traits
Warm Emotional
Kindpolite Sensitive
Competent Stable
Toughcoarse Self-confident
30
Hilary M. Lips, op. cit., p. 21
31
Laurel Richardson, “Gender Stereotyping in the English Language”, in Verta Taylor eds., Feminist Frontiers, New York: McGraw Hill, 2007, seventh edition, p. 100
32
Robert A.Baron, Nyla R.B., and Donn Byrne, loc.cit.
Follower Weak
Friendly Fashionable
Gentle Leader
Strong Accomplished
Nonconformist Aggressive
Similarly, Matsumoto and Juang also point out stereotypes against men such as active, strong, critical, adultlike, conscientious, extrovert, open, and
they need dominance, autonomy, aggression, exhibition, achievement, and endurance.
33
Whereas, women are viewed as passive, weak, nurturing, adaptive, agreeable, neurotic, and they have psychological needs such as
abasement, deference, nurturance, affiliation, and heterosexuality. The second is social roles of women and men. A conventional view
about women’s work is associated to domestic works such as shopping for food, cooking meals, washing, ironing, and child rearing. Although men
sometimes do the houseworks, they tend to do the works related to the use of tools or machine.
34
It is also supported by Lips that men usually do the houseworks related to repair and maintenance, while women usually do the
cooking, laundry, housecleaning, and ironing.
35
It shows the different division in the houseworks between men and women. What men do seems to
be masculine works and women tend to do the feminine one.
33
David Matsumoto and Linda Juang, op. cit., pp. 154 - 155
34
Susan M. Shaw and Janet Lee, Women’s Voices, Feminist Visions: Classic and Contemporary
Reading, New York: McGraw Hill, 2007, p. 433
35
Hilary M. Lips, op. cit., p. 255
In addition, women usually have responsibility for caring communication among family members’, friends, and doing something for others. For
instance, they are responsible for visiting others, planning family reunion and holiday, organizing wedding, negotiating conflicts, allocating tasks, and
keeping contact to distant family members. However, what women do in the home is not considered as a job rather than natural thing they do.
36
People assume that women do such works because they are women, and it likely
become a social norm. Therefore, women still have to do the houseworks although they are work outside the home.
When women work in public, their occupations tend to be associated with their traits such as gentle, nurturant, and the other feminine characteristics.
Crawford and Unger note, for instance, most of women work as secretaries, nurses, and school teachers, whereas men’s job are mostly as mechanics,
engineers, and computer scientists.
37
Moreover, in retail sales, men’s job are selling appliance, computers, and cars, but women sell clothing. Women
work in fast-food chains and diner, whereas men work as waiters and chefs. In the health care industry women work as the nurses’ aides, abortion clinic
workers, social workers, laboratory technicians, while men work as physician and hospital administrator. It shows that men tend to have higher
position than women. It seems that women are stereotyped as less competent than men. In other words, men are judged to be more superior than women.
Besides, the use of pronoun in English sometimes reflects gender stereotypes related to women and men’s occupation. Nurses, secretaries, and
36
Susan M. Shaw and Janet Lee, op.cit., p. 429
37
Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger, op. cit., pp. 366 - 367
elementary school teachers mostly refer to the pronoun she, but doctors engineers, electricians, and presidents refer to he.
38
The next is gender stereotypes about women and men’s behavior. Some
personal traits associated with women and men trigger people to assume women and men’s behavior. Because women are stereotyped as gentle,
patient, nurturant, lovely, and so on, people believe that women tend to behave as those stereotypes. Women tend to shop for food, prepare meals,
do dishes, clean home, and care their child. In contrast, men stereotyped as strong, competent, dominant, active, and so on are believed to work in public
and only do the houseworks such as repairing machine, washing car, and other works related to the maintenance. Therefore, such components of
gender stereotypes are related to each other. The stereotypes of women and men’s personal traits make judgment about their behavior. As Lips states
that one component of gender stereotypes affects people’s believes about the
others.
39
The last component of gender stereotypes is physical characteristics. This category refers to women and men’s physical appearance. Commonly
women are portrayed to be attractive, feminine, and smart, but men are described to be strong, macho, sexy, and muscular.
40
Moreover, in order to describe the physical characteristics mostly associated with women and men,
here they are classified into four subtypes; housewives, athletic woman, businesswomen, and sexy woman; the subtypes of men are athletic man,
blue-collar working man, businessman, and macho man. The physical characteristics mostly associated with athletic women are muscular, good
body, strong, aggressive, masculine; similarly the athletic men are muscular,
38
Laurel Richardson, op. cit., pp. 99 - 100
39
Hilary M. Lips, op. cit., p.21
40
Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger, op. cit., p. 52
healthy, strong, in shape, good body. Good figure, long hair, good dresser, nail polish, pretty face are mostly associated with sexy women, while macho
man are related to muscular, hairy chest, mustache, attractive, and self-centered. Then, businesswoman are related to the physical
characteristics such as smart, nice clothes, hard-working, and organized; businessman are associated with wearing suits, smart, and good appearance.
41
It appears that women are sometimes like men, but men are not like women. Athletic women and athletic man, for example, almost have similar physical
appearances. Further, the businesswomen also has masculinity like the businessman. Therefore, men have their own characteristics, but women
likely have similar appearance with men. d.
Gender Bias Gender stereotypes developed in the society influence people’s thought
and behavior. Also, those stereotypes likely lead to gender bias. Schools is one of agents of gender socialization.
42
They have contribution in socializing gender through textbooks or interaction between teachers and students. For
example, female students are more explicitly punished for their aggressiveness than male students. Besides, in the music class female
students are given triangle, and male students are given drums to play.
43
Consequently, teachers need to be more aware of such gender bias in school. Teachers also have to consider textbooks used as a media of teaching in the
classroom. They may also consist of gender bias. Gender bias in the textbooks can be presented in some components.
Muthali’in states that textbooks which are published by Depdiknas
41
Ibid., p. 53
42
Verta Taylor, Nancy Whittier, Leila J. Rupp, op. cit., p. 96
43
Robert E. Slavin, Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, Boston: Pearson Education, 2012, tenth edition, p. 102
Department of National Education or other publishers present gender bias in several items su
ch as women and men’s pictures, activities, descriptions, professions, roles, games, possession, duties, and responsibility.
44
Such components in the textbooks that may contain gender bias likely influence
students’ concept of gender. In English, for example, the word mistress in ‘She is Tom’s mistress.’ indicates that women are defined in relation to men,
whereas the word master in ‘He is the master of his trade.’ shows that men are
defined in relation to the world.
45
The other example is the use of generic he can mean he or she, and the generic man can also refer to both women and
men grammatically. students of junior high school may not think that gender bias is a matter. However, as long as they use the textbooks which may
contain gender bias, the concept of gender bias they get from the textbooks internalizes into their mind. Thus, it will lead them to think that men have a
higher status than women. Based on the explanation above, it is better to analyze textbook prior to
using it. That can help teachers avoid gender bias socialization. Therefore, teachers not only teach students language or other sciences but also the
concept of gender neutrally. e.
Gender Representation in the Textbooks As stated before that not only teachers socialize gender, but also
textbooks. Textbooks may also present gender bias implicitly. According to Logsdon, gender representation in the textbooks consists of six aspects;
number of femalemale pictures, number of femalemale mentioned, gender
44
Achmad Muthali’in, Bias Gender dalam Pendidikan, Surakarta: Muhammadiyah University Press, 2001, p. 103
45
Laurel Richardson, op. cit., p. 102
roles, femalemale games, femalemale roles models, and pattern of mentioning femalemale names.
46
The first, number of femalemale pictures is about how many femalemale pictures are found in the textbooks. The second aspect is
number of femalemale mentioned that shows how many times of femalemale mentioned in the textbooks such as names and pronouns. The
third is gender roles indicating how many roles of femalemale are mentioned such as in texts, sentences, or illustrations. The next aspect is femalemale
games which means how many games played by femalemale mentioned in the textbooks. The other aspect is femalemale role models which means
how many femalemale role models are found in texts, sentences, or illustrations. The last one is pattern of mentioning femalemale names. It
shows either female or male mentioned firstly in a phrase or a sentence.