13 The example of verbs that has two forms is
‗sell’. The simple past‘s and past participle‘s form of ―sell‖ is ―sold‖. The example of verbs that has three forms is
―ring‖. The simple past of ring is ‗rang’, and the past participle‘s form is ―rung‖. d.
Plural and Singular 1
Singular The verbs after singular nouns should be added with suffixes -s or
–es for present tense. Moreover, the linking verbs
―be‖ should be changed into ―is‖ for present tense and ―was‖ for past tense. e.g.: My friend lives lived in Boston; this
is was my bag. 2
Plural The verbs after plural nouns should not be added with suffixes -s or
–es for present tense.
The linking verbs ―be‖ should also be changed into ―are‖ for present tense and ―were‖ for past tense. e.g.: My friends live lived in Boston;
these are were my books. Moreover, the nouns themselves should be added with suffixes -s or
–es. However, in some cases the plural nouns have special forms, such as ―mouse‖ which has plural form ―mice‖ and not ―mouses‖
3. Contrastive analysis hypothesis
Contrastive analysis hypothesis is used to help the researcher to examine the similarities or differences of the first language, Indonesian and the second
language, English. This theory helps to find possible reasons outside the grammatical and public speaking area.
There are three versions of contrastive analysis hypothesis. However, in this research, the researcher will use the weak version of contrastive analysis
14 hypothesis. In the weak version, contrastive analysis hypothesis starts with the
learner ‘s errors and explains at least a subset of them by pointing to the
similarities and differences between the two languages. Slar, p. 57 as stated by Hagopian.
The history and theoretical origin of this contrastive analysis in behaviorist psychology are that one
– third of the deviant sentences from second language learner could be attributed to language transfer. Dulay and Burt, 1972, as stated
by Richards and Sampson
4. Non-Contrastive approach
The non – contrastive approach helps the researcher to not see the errors from
first language interfere but to focus on the types of error. This approach is proposed by Richards 1971 who states that the major factor of errors produced
by the second language L2 learners of English is not from the first language L1 interference. This approach focuses on several types of error, observed in the
acquisition of English as a second language, which do not derive from transfer from another language.
a. Over-generalization Over-generalization covers instance where the learner creates deviant structure
on the basis of his experience of other structure in the target language. Over- generalization generally involves the creation of one deviant structure in place of
two regular structures which is the result of the learner reducing his linguistic burden. Richards, 1971. The common example of over-generalization is the
omission of –s-es for the third person singular in present tense or –ed marker in
15 past tense. Richards 1971 says that over-generalization is associated with a
redundancy reduction. According to Richards 1971, a redundancy reduction is condition where the
English learner omits the items which are contrasted in the grammar of the language but which do not carry significant and obvious contrast for the learner,
i.g.: -ed marker and third person singular ending. He adds that it may occur, for instance, with items which are contrasted in the grammar of the language which
do not carry significant and obvious contrast for the learner. b. False concepts hypothesized
A false concept hypothesized is a class of developmental error, which derive from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the target language.
―Developmental error illustrates the learner who attempts to build up hypotheses about the English
language from his limited experience in the c lassroom or textbook‖ Richards ,
1971. The example is this analogy: Is
= present state, is + ing = present action Was
= past state, was + ing = past action Thus was pr was +ing may be used as past markers. Used together with the
verb +ed this produces such sentences as he was climbed the tree. Interpreted as the form for ‗past actions‘ it gives I was going down town yesterday instead
of I went down town yesterday.
B. Theoretical Framework
