Scientia Horticulturae

Mean value of crop productivity and soil properties of three clusters of nutrient management practices.

Crop productivity/soil property Clusters

I II III Gardenpea pod yield (t ha − 1 ) 8.36 6.82 4.69

French bean pod yield (t ha − 1 ) 12.75 10.06 6.63 Soil organic carbon (g kg − 1 ) 1.26 1.21 1.06 Soil CEC a (c mol kg − 1 ) 18.61 11.64 9.90 Soil pH 6.65 6.69 5.88 Bacteria population count (×10 7 CFU − g –1 soil) 3.07 1.82 1.39 Fungi population count (×10 5 CFU g 1 soil) 4.40 2.68 1.12 Actinomycete population count (×10 4 CFU g − 1 soil) 20.6 13.0 9.1 Trichoderma population count (×10 3 CFU g − 1 soil) 4.17 2.34 1.19

Dehydrogenase activity (␮g TPF g − 1 soil 24 h − 1 ) 136 90 73 Acid phiosphatase activity (␮g PNP g − 1 soil h − 1 ) 1335 1090 1012 PAWC (%) −

14.41 10.96 9.73 Soil BD (Mg m 3 ) −

1.35 1.37 1.40 Soil cracking volume (cm 3 m 2 ) 174 196 363 SCSA (Soil cracking surface area cm 2 m − 2 ) 1735 1905 3672 Infiltration rate (cm h − 1 ) 0.90 0.75 0.65

Coldest week morning temperature ( ◦ C) ◦

12.2 11.7 11.5 Hottest week afternoon temperature ( C) 24.5 26.8 28.0

Hottest week diurnal temperature difference ( ◦ C) 0.91 3.05 3.95

a CEC = Cation exchange capacity, CFU = Colony forming unit, TPF = Triphenylformazan, PNP = p-nitrophenol, PAWC = Plant available water capacity, BD = Bulk density.

D. Mahanta et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 164 (2013) 414–427 423

Fig. 7. Response of soil organic carbon (SOC) to soil cation exchange capacity and dehydrogenase activity (SOC, soil cation exchange capacity and soil dehydrogenase activity

values of different treatments were taken for this response calculation).

Fig. 8. Response of soil organic carbon (SOC) to soil bulk density and cracking volume (SOC, bulk density and soil cracking volume values of different treatments were taken

for this response calculation).

possible with application of mineral fertilizers alone ( Sharma and gardenpea–french bean system in plots under FYM 20 than NPK and

Behera, 2009 ). Use of organic manure ensured prolonged availabil- INM. Gardenpea provided the highest pod yield with application

ity of nutrients even beyond the growth period and thereby showed of 15 t FYM ha -1 , but french bean achieved the highest productiv-

its residual effect on the next crop in the rotation. It seems likely ity with FYM 20 t ha − 1 . It might be due to high N requirement for

that there was a continuous and regulated supply of nutrients in french bean than gardenpea, as french bean is a low N 2 fixing crop

the FYM amended plots due to the slow release action compared ( Yadav, 2010 ). The available N content might have been higher due

with the rapid solubility of mineral fertilizers ( Behera et al., 2007 ).

to more addition of N in FYM 20 than FYM 15 treated plots, which

It is often assumed that a high level of synchrony between nutri- might have reduced the performance of gardenpea in FYM 20 with

ent release from FYM and crop nutrient uptake might have taken comparison to later plots.

place, because the same environmental factors regulate the pro-

cesses of decomposition as well as net primary productivity and

nutrient demand ( Crews and Peoples, 2005 ). In addition to major

and micro-nutrient supply, organic manuring also provides other

beneficial effects to crop plants like release of various growth pro-

moting substances ( Sharma and Behera, 2009 ). Again, increased

acid phosphatase activity could be responsible for hydrolysis of

organically bound phosphate into free ions, which were taken up

by plants. Tarafdar and Jungk (1987) reported that plants can utilize

organic P fractions from the soil by means of phosphatase activity

enriched in the soil-root interface. Reddy et al. (1987) reported that

due to the reactions of phosphatase, H 2 − PO 4 was made available

to plants from organic substances in soils. Higher soil microbial

and dehydrogenase activity also favored for significantly more pod

yield in plots under FYM 20 than NPK and INM in gardenpea–french

bean system. Moreover, FYM 20 provided better soil quality (soil

physico-bio-chemical properties) as recorded in this experiment Fig. 9. Response of soil organic carbon (SOC) to morning soil temperature of the

( Tables 4–6 ), which ultimately reflected higher pod yield of the coldest week (First week of January during last year of experimentation).

424 D. Mahanta et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 164 (2013) 414–427

Application of FYM has several indirect long-term benefits coldest week and decreased during afternoon of coldest and hottest

(improvement in nutrient-use efficiency, providing favorable soil week and morning of hottest week. The moderation of extreme

health with better soil physical, chemical and biological envi-

soil temperature through high SOC, moisture holding capacity,

ronment), which also accounted for greater adoption ensuring

shading and canopy effect was highest under FYM 20 plots, which

sustainable productivity ( Sharma and Behera, 2009 ) under FYM 20 finally positively reflected in the pod yield of both gardenpea and

plots with comparison to NPK and INM treated plots. The pro-

french bean compared to NPK and INM treated plots ( Fig. 10 ). ductivity of crops was shown to be stabilized or improved with It clearly indicated that application of FYM could be more adap-

gradual build-up of better soil quality ( Tables 4–6 ) following appli- tive to climate change (even in the Indian Himalayas) for both

cation of higher level (FYM 20 ) of organic manures than plots

crops.

under NPK and INM. However, the addition of leaf litter and

The highest microbial population under FYM 20 treated plots was

root biomass of crops might have increased with higher level due to the presence of easily water soluble C ( Malik et al., 2013 )

of FYM, which might have also helped in sustaining the sys-

and N in FYM, which acts as a source of energy for soil organisms,

tem productivity ( Behera et al., 2007 ) under FYM 20 plots than whereas the easily soluble C component was missing in mineral fer-

NPK and INM. Application of FYM enhances sustainability of

tilizer ( Behera et al., 2007 ) and, hence, the microbial population was

cropping system was also further supported by Nayak et al.

less in the plots under NPK. These are in the agreement with results

(2012) . obtained by Bonilla et al. (2012) , Lee et al. (2004) and Zhang et al.

Continuous application of organic amendments for six years

(2012) . Addition of FYM provided the easily soluble C and increased

decreased the BD of soil significantly and similar results have been the microbial population in surface layer (0–15 cm) of soil in the

corroborated by Mosavi et al. (2012) and Ge et al. (2013) . Applica- plots under INM. Trichoderma species are cosmopolitan fungi in

tion of FYM might have impacted soil aggregation with more root soils decaying organic substances. They possess diverse metabolic

biomass, thereby reducing soil BD ( Bhattacharyya et al., 2010 ). The activity and are aggressive in nature. These characteristics make increase in organic matter (carbon) ( Table 6 ) content resulted in them significant decomposers and necrotrophic to other fungi,

greater total porosity and better soil structure, which contributed which help in playing key roles in suppressing soil-borne plant in lowering soil BD ( Herencia et al., 2011; Celik et al., 2010). Soil BD diseases and promoting plant growth. These render Trichoderma

decreased with FYM application due to higher SOC ( Table 6 ) that as a beneficial ecosystem of soil ( Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi,

resulted in better soil aeration and improvement of soil structural 2009 ).

properties ( Kundu et al., 2007 ). The reduction of BD in FYM 20 had

Soil dehydrogenase activity is a good indicator of overall micro-

improved the porosity and that might have helped soil aggregation bial activity in soil and it can serve as a good indicator of and water holding capacity of soil with comparison to NPK and INM soil condition ( Doi and Ranamukhaarachchi, 2009 ). The enzymes

plots. An increase of SOC content and decrease in soil BD in the soil assayed in this study were chosen because they play central roles in

under FYM 20 plots might have caused an increase in PAWC. Ge et al. mediating biochemical transformations involving organic residue

(2013) have also recently reported the similar results. decomposition and C, N and P cycling in soils. It is believed that

Low SCV with FYM 20 application may be attributed to greater most soil enzymes originate from soil fungi, bacteria and plant roots

soil water contents than NPK and INM plots ( Table 4 ) and the ( Tarafdar et al., 1988 ). The variable effect of organic amendment

data were supported by the previous research ( Bandyopadhyay

application on exo-cellular enzyme activity was due to interac-

et al., 2003 ). The effect of FYM application on crack volume may be tion of several factors. Firstly, organic amendment applications attributed to a greater root biomass than the plots under NPK and increased organic matter content and microbial biomass. Therefore,

INM treatments. The higher numbers of roots produced due to FYM the soil has the better potential for greater enzyme production. This

application might have reduced the shrinkage process by anchoring may explain the significantly higher dehydrogenase and acid phos-

the soil mass. Application of FYM reduced SCSA by reducing crack phatase activities in plots under FYM 20 than NPK and INM. These

width ( Bandyopadhyay et al., 2003 ).

are in the agreement with results obtained by Liu et al. (2013) . Sec-

The ability of a soil to transmit water depends on the arrange- ondly, soil pH can greatly influence the rate of enzyme catalyzed

ment of the soil particles and stability of the aggregates. Higher reactions, as a change in H + ion concentration influences enzymes,

IR with FYM 20 could be attributed to higher SOC content. The

substrates, and cofactors by altering their ionization and solubility

application of FYM over the years not only increased total poros- ( Tabatabai, 1994 ). Under acid soil conditions (i.e. pH 5.64 in NPK

ity, as evident from reduced soil BD ( Table 4 ), but also might

plots), large increase in concentrations of aluminium (Al 3+ ) and

have improved pore size distribution, continuity and stability of manganese (Mn 2+ ) cations in soil solution occur ( Rowell, 1988 ), and

pores ( Bhattacharyya et al., 2006 ). FYM often modifies soil struc- high concentrations of these ions could have influenced enzyme

ture and improves soil aggregation and infiltration characteristics function adversely ( Dick, 1997 ) in plots under NPK. The soil pH

( Bhattacharyya et al., 2010 ). In addition, higher steady-state IR may of 6.85 (almost neutral) in plots under FYM 20 might have favored

be the direct result of accelerated water flow through macropo- dehydrogenase and acid phosphatase activities compared to NPK

res and bio-channels ( Bhattacharyya et al., 2010 ). Application of and INM plots. Thirdly, being the substrate for microbial activ-

organic manure to soil greatly increased water infiltration ( Essien,

ity, soil organic matter plays an important role in protecting soil

2011 ) and was directly related to the quantity of organic material enzymes, which become immobilized in a three-dimensional net-

applied ( Parker and Jenny, 1945 ).

work of clay and humus complexes ( Tabatabai, 1994 ). Soils under

Continuous application of organic amendments (FYM 20 t ha − 1 )

FYM 20 recorded 14.1 and 9.3% higher SOC than NPK and INM treated

for six years improved the SOC and PAWC significantly compared plots, respectively. The linear relationship between SOC and soil

to plots under NPK and INM treatments and similar results have organic matter (SOM) provided higher SOM in FYM 20 treated plots

been reported by Ge et al. (2013) . Again, the plant growth might than NPK and INM and, hence, more enzymatic activity. It was

have also improved as indicated from pod yield under FYM 20 plots,

also reported that dehydrogenase and acid phosphatase activities

which enhanced moisture retention capacity of soil by cooling

were much higher in soils under FYM than in mineral fertiliza- effect to the soil through higher shadow and canopy coverage. tion and INM treated plots. Addition of FYM to mineral fertilization

Due to high SOC, PAWC, moisture holding capacity and cool-

improved both enzymatic activities in INM treated plots than NPK

ing effect, the soil moisture status was improved and moderated ( Giusquiani et al., 1994 ).

the soil temperature better in FYM 20 plots than NPK and INM

The soil reaction was more acidic with application of mineral

plots. Hence, the soil temperature increased during morning of fertilizers, while it was approaching to neutral with application

D. Mahanta et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 164 (2013) 414–427 425

Fig. 10. Response of morning soil temperature of the coldest week and afternoon soil temperature of hottest week on productivity of respective crops.

of successive rate of FYM. The approach to neutral soil reaction further supported by the strong correlation between CEC and SOC

with application of organic manure has also been reported by Ge (R 2 = 0.983 *** ). et al. (2013) . Application of FYM to soil resulted in increased soil

pH by improving soil buffering capacity compared to the plots under mineral fertilization ( Gopinath et al., 2009 ). The acidification 5. Conclusion with application of mineral fertilizer is attributable to nitrification

of applied fertilizer N and subsequent leaching of nitrate (NO – ) The results obtained on a six-year cycle of gardenpea–french 3 formed during mineralization of mineral fertilizers ( Graham et al., bean cropping system provide us with major findings on sus-

2002 ). tainability and climate resilience of the system in the Indian SOC is the overall indicator of soil quality ( Lopez et al., 2012 ). SOC Himalayas. Through the PCA analysis, soil CEC was found to be

is attributable to higher yields under FYM 20 plots, which might have the most important soil property for enhancing productivity of resulted in higher inputs of organic matter to the soil in the form gardenpea–french bean cropping system. From the regression anal-

of FYM, root turnover and crop residues ( Brar et al., 2013; Ghosh ysis and correlation, it was found that SOC markedly influenced

other soil parameters. Addition of 20 t FYM ha et − al., 2012 ) and finally increase in SOC ( Maltas et al., 1 2013 ). The (FYM 20 ) increased

enhancement of organic C in FYM-treated plots is obvious because soil organic C (SOC) by about 14 and 9%, respectively, over mineral-

the addition of FYM itself increases the C content in soil as compared fertilized (NPK) and INM treated plots. Increased SOC might have

to no external C addition through mineral fertilizers ( Bhattacharyya been the cause of better soil physical conditions, through improved

et al., 2009 ). PAWC and IR and reduced soil BD and soil cracking parameters in

The concentration and amount of SOC under FYM 20 plots

FYM 20 treated plots compared to NPK and INM plots. Application

( Table 6 ) provided higher storage potential of organic carbon, car- of FYM 20 showed significantly higher soil CEC, microbial popula-

bon sequestration potential and SOC build-up rate than NPK and tion, dehydrogenase and acid phosphatase activities over NPK and

INM treated plots. Fronning et al. (2008) also observed that total INM plots in the 0–15 cm soil layer. The SYI increased with suc-

SOC in the 0−0.25 m profile increased by 41 and 25% for the

cessive rate of FYM application and FYM 20 treated plots provided

compost and manure treatments, respectively, at Michigan, USA. higher sustainability index than NPK and INM. This would also Manure is already partly decomposed and contains a larger pro- provide more carbon storage potential to maintain environment

portion of chemically recalcitrant organic compounds, which might friendly situation than NPK and INM treated plots. Soil C seques-

have enhanced C retention in manure amended plots ( Paustian

tration also benefits the climate, which is threatened by global

et al., 1992 ). The highest CO emission reduction through SOC stock increase in atmospheric CO 2 . From the temperature 2 moderation under FYM 20 plots was obvious, as it was directly proportional to and C emission reduction, it was found that application of FYM 20 is SOC amount in soil. The per unit CO 2 equivalent emission of GHGs more climate resilient than NPK and INM plots. The PCA put FYM 20 , for production of manure is less than manufacture of mineral fertil- FYM 15 and INM among treatments in a single cluster for differ-

izer of N, P and K together ( Lal, 2004 ) and hence the low emission for ent soil properties and pod yield of both vegetables. Use of FYM

20 t FYM ha − 1 with comparison to NPK and INM. It is clearly proved is a better alternative to achieve sustainability. The results of this −

from the above emission factor that application of 20 t FYM ha − 1 is

study indicate that 20 t FYM ha 1 to each crop can be used for sus-

highly climate resilient and sustainable than mineral fertilization tainable yield, climate resilient crop production and soil quality of

and INM. gardenpea–french bean cropping system.

Several factors determine the soil CEC. High CEC in FYM 20 plots might be due to higher SOC and pH (near neutral) recorded in these Acknowledgments plots than NPK plots. This is in agreement with Goladi and Agbenin,

1997 , who observed SOC and pH are among most important factors

contributing CEC of soil. FYM also contributes nutrients 2+

(Ca , Mg 2+ )

The authors are grateful to Mr. Laxmi Datt Malkani and Mr.

over in

the years and relatively high

Sanjay for maintaining the field experiment

to soils, resulting

CEC ( Ge et al., 2013 ). This is analyzing the soil for different elements, respectively and Dr. R.S.

426 D. Mahanta et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 164 (2013) 414–427

Yadav, Principal Scientist, PDFSR, Modipuram for guiding carbon Goladi, J.T., Agbenin, J.O., 1997. The cation exchange properties and microbial carbon,

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