Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
Crépin B. Péné, Souleymane N’Diaye and Chantal N’Guessan-Konan Department of R&D, SUCAFCI/SOMDIAA Sugar Mills, 33 rue des Brasseurs, 01 P.O. Box 1967 Abidjan 01, Ivory Coast
Received: March 27, 2012 / Accepted: May 31, 2012 / Published: March 30, 2013.
Abstract: Soil survey investigations were carried out in Ferké 1 as well as Ferké 2 sugar mills of northern Ivory Coast to determine soil texture and water storage capacity for sprinkler irrigation and tillage management. A 5-year term observation experiment on reduced tillage compared with conventional tillage was also conducted in Ferké 1 over an irrigated cane crop of 28 ha for yield optimization purpose. Soil sampling was achieved after harvest or prior to re-plantation at five different spots along two transects over 30 cm depth in every farmland which covers about 30-40 ha with 432 m long cane rows as to get an average soil sample of 1.5-2 kg. Soil physical properties like texture and water retention curves were determined locally in the sugar company’s soil laboratory. It came out that the majority of soils investigated was coarse-textured for about 64% in Ferké 1 and 85% in Ferké 2, with
a lower to medium water storage capacity (70-89 mm) over 60 cm depth which corresponds to a readily available moisture less than
60 mm. Except for the sugarcane plant crop, no significant difference in cane yields resulting from tillage practices was observed over four consecutive cropping seasons. The yield decline from plant cane to first ratoon was very high under conventional tillage (-16 t/ha) compared with the reduced tillage (+3 t/ha). Even higher cane yield was obtained on the second ratoon (89 t/ha) compared with the conventional tillage (83 t/ha).
Key words: Particle size distribution, physical property, water retention, available moisture, reduced tillage, irrigation management.
1. Introduction Soil texture has a very important influence on the flow of soil water, the circulation of air, and the rate
The Ivorian sugarcane industry has been facing a of chemical transformations which are of importance lack of competitiveness since two decades ago, due to to plant life. The size of soil particles has a great yield decline and high production costs. The yield influence on crop production all over the world, but to decline has to be related to soil fertility decline as a the irrigation farmer it is particularly important result of very low soil organic matter content because it determines in a large measure the depth of (0.4%-2.0%) and poor management practices water he can store in a given depth of soil. The regarding irrigation, soil tillage, cane harvesting and existence of granules assures a desirable soil structure. long-term monoculture of sugarcane. In particular, soil Excessive irrigation, ploughing, or otherwise working organic matter is impeded by burn-cane harvesting as fine-textured soils, when either too wet or too dry, well as excessive tillage without pre-irrigation in order tends to break down these granules. Favourable to remove soil compaction due to heavy machinery structure in fine-textured soils is essential to the with indiscriminate traffic especially at harvest. satisfactory movement of water and air. Favourable
soil structure is recognized as the key to soil fertility. Corresponding author: Crépin B. Péné, Ph.D., director of research, research fields: agronomy, agricultural engineering,
Adequate amounts of chemical nutrients in soils, irrigation. E-mail: bpene@sucafci.somdiaa.com.
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
though essential to crop production, do not assure The objective of the study was to determine soil satisfactory plant growth and crop yields. The
texture, water content-matric potential relations and permeability of soils to water, air, and roots, provided
the available soil moisture for sprinkler irrigation as by favourable soil structure, is equally important to
well as tillage management purposes. crop growth as adequate supplies of nutrients. The
2. Materials and Methods
primary function of organic matter as well as humus is to add stability to soil aggregates, serving as a cushion
2.1 Ferké Sugarcane Farmlands
against the shock of tillage. The survey was carried out on Ferké 1 and Ferké 2 The practice of sprinkler irrigation in Ferké sugarcane plantations in northern Ivory Coast sugarcane without enough knowledge of soil texture respectively 8 m and 45 m away from the city of and water content-matric potential relations resulted in Ferké (09°35' N, 05°12' W, 330 m a.s.l.). The
poor estimates of available soil moisture and therefore prevailing climate is tropical dry with a one-modal
inappropriate application rates of irrigation associated rainfall pattern averaging 1,200 mm/year. The
with a lower crop water use with such consequences 7-month rainy season takes place from April to
as nutrient leaching below the root zone, soil erosion October, August and September being highly wetted
and high production costs. with a total rainfall of 500-600 mm. The 5-month dry Yield decline in sugarcane, which was defined as
season starting from November to March is marked by the loss of productive capacity of soils under
a hot as well as dry wind originated from Sahara, long-term monoculture used to be a widespread
namely the harmattan which prevails from November problem throughout the Australian sugar industry [1].
to January with the highest magnitude of daily It is believed to be caused by a combination of factors
temperatures (+10-20 °C). The vegetation is Guinea associated with current sugarcane management system,
savannah with some thin rain forests along waterways. including the growth of sugarcane as a monoculture,
Soils are mainly ferralsols and occasionally alluvial the frequent aggressive tillage of the soil between crop
soils or hydromorphic soils in valley bottoms as well cycles and the use of heavy harvesting machinery.
as in uplands where water infiltration is limited by These practices have resulted in sugarcane soils
impermeable layers.
becoming physically, chemically and biologically Both Ferké sugar mills cover a total farmland of degraded and as a consequence the development of
12,000 ha which are mainly under sprinkler as well as different soil organisms detrimental to the growth of
drip irrigation. In addition, about 2,000 ha are devoted sugarcane [2-4].
to rain-fed sugarcane village plantations. The introduction of rotation breaks, notably an
2.2 Soil Sampling
alternate crop such as soybean or a sown pasture has been shown to be effective in improving sugarcane
Soil sampling was achieved after harvest or prior to yields [5] and soil health generally. A major factor
re-plantation at five different spots along two transects associated with the yield responses following different
over 30 cm depth in every farmland which covers rotations breaks was rotation-induced changes in the
about 30-40 ha with 432-m long cane rows as to get composition of the soil biota. The changes included a
an average soil sample of 1.5-2 kg for laboratory reduction in the populations of root pathogens known
investigations.
to be associated with yield decline (i.e. the rot fungus
2.3 Soil Texture Analysis
Pachymetra chaunorhiza, and the lesion nematode Pratylenchus zeae) [6].
Soil samples were air-dried, ground and sieved
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
through a 2-mm mesh. Particle size distribution was wilting point (pF = 4.2) is termed the available determined using the Robinson’s pipette method after
moisture or TAM (total available moisture). The the sample is cleaned from organic matter with
RAM (readily available moisture) is the portion (2/3) oxygen water and dispersed by rotational shaking in
of the available moisture that is most easily extracted presence of sodium hexa-meta-phosphate (1 g/L). Soil
by plants. They are expressed as follows: sample suspension is then sieved through 200-µm as
TAM = ( Өv pF2.5 Өv pF4.2 )·z
well as 50-µm meshes for collecting coarse-sand where Өv pF2.5 : volumetric water content at pF 2.5 (2,000-200 µm) and fine sand (200-50 µm) (field capacity); respectively which are heavily washed with distilled
Өv pF4.2 : volumetric water content at pF 4.2 water, oven-dried over 24 h at 105 °C and weighed.
(permanent wilting point);
The excess washing water is added to the 50-0 µm
z: crop rooting depth;
suspension which is transferred to a 1,000
Өv = Өg·D bulk ;
mL-measuring cylinder where hydrometer readings Өg: gravimetric water content; are taken after regular intervals in order to collect clay
D bulk : the soil bulk density.
(2-0 µm) and fine silt (20-2 µm) and coarse-silt (50-20 Field capacity is defined as the soil moisture µm). Sedimentation time and hydrometer readings at a
content when the gravitational water has been given temperature are used to determine the grain size
removed. The soil moisture content when plants according to the Stokes’ law. All different particle
permanently wilt is called the permanent wilting point fractions collected are oven-dried over 24 h at 105 °C,
or the wilting coefficient.
weighed and expressed in %.
2.5 Irrigation Systems Practiced
2.4 Measurement of Soil Water Retention Irrigation water is provided by electrical pumping
The relevant equipment is a set of ceramic plates from Bandama and Lokpoho river-reservoirs which placed in an extractor which is operated by a
storage capacities are respectively 70 and 10 million compressor. Soil moisture is removed from soil 3 m of water. Sprinkler irrigation systems, namely
samples by raising air pressure in an extractor. A center-pivot, lateral move, travelling big gun and porous ceramic plate serves as a hydraulic link for
covering classical sprayer, are practiced over 10,600 water to move from the soil to the exterior of the
ha (95%) compared with drip irrigation over 500 ha extractor. The smaller the soil pore size is, the higher
(5%). In both sugar mills, centre-pivot and classical pressure can be before air passes through.
sprinkler irrigation systems are mostly operated for a The drawing of the moisture retention curve
total irrigated farmland of 8,000 ha (80%). regarding a soil requires putting the moist soil sample
2.6 Reduced Soil Tillage
at different known pF values (2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.2) till equilibrium and each time determining the volumetric
The reduced soil tillage involves the killing of some soil water content. Equilibrium is reached when water
early stage cane ratoons with herbicide (Glyphosate) flow from the outflow tube ceases. At equilibrium,
and pre-watering before the step of simultaneous soil there is an exact relationship between the air pressure
de-compaction and double disc opening of the in the extractor and the soil suction (and hence the
previous cane crop inter-rows. Therefore, tillage moisture content) in the samples.
operations being eliminated in the technique compared The difference in moisture content of the soil
with the traditional one concern the use of disc plough between field capacity (pF = 2.5) and permanent
as well as disc harrow. Much more recommended
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
reduced tillage requires traffic control of heavy
60 mm (Figs. 1 and 2). These light soils were very machinery especially at harvest, break of cane
suitable for the practice of minimum tillage which monoculture with a legume crop like soybean,
importantly contributes to reduce sugarcane groundnut or lablab for up-grading soil health and
production costs. The other textural categories such as replanting in the previous cane rows instead of
sandy-clay or clay-loam, rather well balanced and less inter-rows for better crop use of soil organic matter.
suitable for the practice of reduced tillage without An observation experiment was carried out over a 28
pre-watering, gave medium to high total available ha-commercial farm with two tillage treatments in
moisture (90-110 mm) and therefore a maximum three replicates each. The total area covered by each
irrigation application rate (or readily available treatment was 14 ha. Replicates of both treatments
moisture) of 60-70 mm.
were set up alternately for minimizing experimental error. The sugarcane crop (FR8069 variety) was
3.2 Soil Water Retention Curves (or pF Curves) planted early February 2007 in simple rows of 432 m
Within the soil unsaturated zone, a decrease in long. The experiment was conducted under sprinkler
water content results to an increase of absolute water irrigation over four consecutive years as plant crop
potential due to increase in capillary as well as followed by three ratoons.
adsorption forces on solid articles (Figs. 3 and 4). The
3. Results and Discussion
water content-matric potential relation Ө (h) defined as soil moisture characteristic curve is soil
3.1 Soil Texture and Water Storage Capacity type-specific because of influence of the geometry of
The majority of farmland soils investigated was pores (structure) on capillary forces as well as the coarse-textured for about 64% in Ferké 1 and 85% in
specific area of solid particles (texture) on adsorption Ferké 2 with a lower to medium water storage
forces. Under lower matric potential (0 < pF < 3) capacity (70-89 mm) over 60 cm depth which
capillary forces and soil structure are predominant corresponds to a readily available moisture less than
whereas under higher matrix potential (pF > 3) adsorption
Ferké 1
120.0 TAM RAM
g e (mm)
Soil water stora 40.0
Sandy clay
Loamy clay
Soil texture
Fig. 1 Total and readily available moisture for three different soil types in Ferké 1 sugar mill.
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
Ferké 2
120.0 TAM RAM
g 80.0 e (mm)
Soil water stora 40.0
Sandy clay
Loamy clay
Soil Texture
Fig. 2 Total and readily available moisture for three different soil types in Ferké 2 sugar mill.
Ferké 1 soil types
Sand
30.0 Sandy clay
Laomy clay
y = -19.313Ln(x) + 36.693
y = -33.213Ln(x) + 60.142
content (%) er
5.0 y = -12.164Ln(x) + 23.365
Volumetric wat
Fig. 3 Soil moisture characteristic curves in Ferké 1 sugar mill for three major soil types.
forces and soil texture are predominant. Nevertheless, solid particles as well as the non-uniform geometry of the water content-matric potential relationship is not
soil pores with different capillary resistance unique as the pF-curves may somewhat differ
capabilities [7].
depending on the soil being under drainage or Soil water has been classified as hygroscopic, humidification phase. At a given soil water potential,
capillary and gravitational. Hygroscopic water is on the water contents are higher under drainage phase than
surface of soil particles and is not capable of significant under humidification. That hysteresis phenomenon is
movement by gravity or capillary forces. Capillary due to contact angles between capillary forces and
water is that part in excess of the hygroscopic water
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
30.0 Sandy clay
Loamy clay
y = -18.151Ln(x) + 38.403
20.0 y = -18.573Ln(x) + 34.882
content (%) er 15.0
y = -12.551Ln(x) + 24.026
Volumetric wat 5.0
pF
Fig. 4 Soil moisture characteristic curves in Ferké 2 sugar mill for three major soil types.
which exists in the pore space of the soil and is arriving at the amount of water available in the soil for retained against the force of gravity in a soil that
plant use. Most of the gravitational water drains permits unobstructed drainage. Gravitational water is
through the soil before it can be used consumptively that part in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water
by plants.
which will readily move out of the soil if favourable In practice, field capacity is usually determined 2 drainage is provided. There is no precise boundary or
days after irrigation. Therefore, field capacity defines line of demarcation between these three classes of soil
a specific point on the moisture content-time curve. water. The proportion of each class depends on soil
Specifying the time also makes it possible to calculate texture, structure, organic matter content, temperature
the water used consumptively by plants while and depth of soil column considered.
gravitational water is draining from the soil. Water may also be classified as unavailable,
Soil moisture is normally between 1/10 atm and 1/3 available, and gravitational. Such a grouping refers to
atm when the soil is at field capacity. The correct the availability of soil water to plants. Gravitational
value depends upon the drainage characteristics of the water drains quickly from the root zone under normal
soil and the time after irrigation at which the soil is drainage conditions. Unavailable water is held too
assumed to reach field capacity. Sandy soils tend to be tightly by capillary forces and is generally not
near 1/10 atm at field capacity while clays tend accessible to plant roots. Available water is the
towards 1/3 atm. For most agricultural soils, a tension difference between gravitational and unavailable water.
of 1/10 atm corresponds more closely than does 1/3 atm to the general accepted values of field capacity
3.3 Field Capacity determined by moisture content [8].
Field capacity cannot be determined accurately
3.4 Permanent Wilting Point
because there is no discontinuity in the curve of moisture content versus time. Nevertheless, the
The permanent wilting point mostly determined at concept of field capacity is extremely useful in
pF 4.2 is at the lower end of the available range. A
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
plant will wilt when it is no longer able to extract difference in cane yields resulting from tillage sufficient moisture from the soil to meet its water
practices was observed over four consecutive cropping needs. Temporary wilting will occur in many crops on
seasons. Difference in cane yields observed on the
a windy day, but the plants recover in the cooler plant crop in favour of the conventional tillage (+16 portion of that day. Permanent wilting, as well as
t/ha) could be explained by better consumptive use of temporary wilting, depends upon the rate of water
nutrients by sugarcane as a result of much more used by the plant, the depth of the root zone, and the
mineralization of soil organic matter through soil water holding capacity. Permanent wilting point
oxidation with some losses of CO 2 by volatilization or will occur at higher moisture content in a hot climate
carbonate and nitrate salts by leaching out of the root than in a cool climate. A plant is considered to be
zone (Fig. 5). Therefore, yield decline from plant cane permanently wilted when it will not recover after
to the first ratoon was very high under conventional being placed in a saturated atmosphere where little or
tillage (-16 t/ha) compared with the reduced tillage no consumptive water use occurs.
(+3 t/ha). Better use of organic matter over time Field estimates of wilting point can often be made
occurred under reduced tillage with even higher cane by determining the moisture content of soils in which
yield obtained on the second ratoon (89 t/ha) plants have permanently wilted. This method is
compared with the conventional tillage (83 t/ha). Cane subject to more error and requires more judgement
yields harvested at first as well as third ratoon were than field determination of field capacity. Allowance
statistically equivalent for both tillage practices. must be made for depth and nature of rooting. For a
The reduced tillage is a key issue which importantly plant to reach permanent wilting following irrigation
contributes to the reduction of production costs in will require 1 week in sands to maybe 4 weeks in
terms of savings of labour, fuel as well as machinery clays, and even longer if the plant is deeply rooted [8].
maintenance. It is one of the four pillars in the The tension at which permanent wilting occurs can
sugarcane new farming system developed in Australia, vary from 7 atm to as high as 40 atm, depending upon
namely organic matter conservation (trash blanketing) rate of consumptive use, crop, salt content of soil, and
traffic control, legume break of sugarcane soil texture. As the temperature and rates of monoculture and reduced tillage. Each of them may consumptive use increase, permanent wilting will
individually improve cane yields or impede yield occur at significantly lower tensions and higher
decline, as observed with the reduced tillage, but their moisture contents. The tension in the soil moisture
combination will improve much more sugarcane when the soil is at permanent wilting is generally
productivity and impede production costs for better considered to be 15 atm. But in reality, 10 atm or 20
competitiveness. The Ivorian sugar industry is moving atm makes very little difference, since the change of
slowly to the right direction except for traffic control moisture is slight with rather large changes of
of heavy machinery and legume break in sugarcane moisture tension. As an approximation, the permanent
where quite a lot needs to be implemented. wilting percentage can be estimated by dividing the
4. Conclusion
field capacity by a factor varying from 2.0 to 2.4, depending upon the amount of silt in the soil. For soils
It came out that the majority of farmland soils of high silt content, 2.4 should be used.
investigated was coarse-textured for about 64% in Ferké 1 and 85% in Ferké 2, with a lower to medium
3.5 Sugarcane Yields as Affected by Soil Tillage Practices water storage capacity (70-89 mm) over 60 cm depth
Except for the sugarcane plant crop, no significant which corresponds to a readily available moisture less
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
lds (t/h
yie Cane
Crop cycles
Fig. 5 Cane yields of plant crop and three successive ratoons under conventional, reduced tillage, sprinkler irrigation practices in Ferké 1 (28 ha-commercial farm), from March 2007 to January 2011.
than 60 mm. These light soils were very suitable for industry: 1970-1990, in: Intensive Sugarcane Production, Meeting: The Challenges Beyong 2000, B.A. Keating,
the practice of minimum tillage which importantly J.R. Wilson (Eds.), CAB International, Wallingford, UK,
contributes to reduce sugarcane production costs. The
1997, pp. 103-124.
other textural categories such as sandy-clay or [2] A.L. Garside, R.G.V. Bramley, K.L. Bristow, R.C. clay-loam, rather well balanced and less suitable for
Magarey, R.O. Nable, C.E. Pankhurst, et al., Comparison the practice of reduced tillage without pre-watering, between paired old and land sites for sugarcane growth and yield, and soil chemical, physical and biological
gave medium to high total available moisture (90-110 properties, in: Proceedings of the 19th Congress of mm) and therefore a maximum irrigation application
Australian Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, rate (or readily available moisture) of 60-70 mm.
Brisbane, Australia, 1997, pp. 60-66. [3] G.R. Stirling, B.L. Blair, P.J.L. Whittle, A.L. Garside,
Except for the sugarcane plant crop, no significant Lesion nematode (Pratylenchus zeae) is a component of
difference in cane yields resulting from tillage the yield decline complex of sugarcane, in: Proceedings practices was observed over four consecutive cropping
of the First Australasian Soilborne Disease Symposium, seasons. The yield decline from plant cane to the first in: R.C. Magarey (Ed), Bureau of Sugarcane Experiment Station, Brisbane, 1999, pp. 15-16.
ratoon is very high under conventional tillage (-16 t/ha) [4] C.E. Pankhurst, R.C. Magarey, G.R. Stirling, B.L. Blair,
compared with the reduced tillage (+3 t/ha). Even M.J. Bell, A.L. Garside, Management practices to higher cane yield was obtained on the second ratoon
improve soil health and reduce the effects of detrimental (89 t/ha) compared with the conventional tillage (83
soil biota associated with yield decline of sugarcane in Queensland, Australian Soil Tillage Research 72 (2003)
t/ha).
125-137.
References [5] A.L. Garside, M.J. Bell, G. Cunningham, J. Berthlesen,
N.V. Halpin, Rotation and fumigation effects on the [1] A.L. Garside, M.A. Smith, L.S. Chapman, A.P. Hurney,
growth and yield of sugarcane, in: Proceedings of the R.C. Magarey, The yield plateau in the Australian sugar
21st Congress of Australian Society Sugar Cane
Sprinkler Irrigation and Soil Tillage Practices in Sugarcane Plantations as Influenced
301
by Soil Texture and Water Storage in Northern Ivory Coast
Technologists, Brisbane, Australia, 1999, pp. 69-78. soil-plant-atmosphere systems (soil water statics and [6] G.R. Stirling, B.L. Blair, J.A. Pattemore, A.L. Garside,
dynamics), in: J.R. Tiercelin, A. Vida (Eds.), Irrigation M.J. Bell, Changes in nematode populations on sugarcane
Treaty, 2nd ed., Lavoisier, Paris, 2006, pp. 47-67. following fallow, fumigation and crop rotation, and
[8] V.E. Hansen, O.W. Israelsen, G.E. Stringham, implications for the role of nematodes in yield decline,
Irrigation Principles and Practices: Basic Soil-water Australian Plant Patholology 30 (2001) 323-335.
Relations, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, [7] M Soutter, A. Musy, Basic knowledge of
1979, pp. 33-51.
Mar. 2013, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 302-307 Journal of Life Sciences, ISSN 1934-7391, USA
Effects of a Brine Discharge over Bottom Polychaeta Community Structure in Chabahar Bay
Seyyed Mohammad Bagher Nabavi 1 , Mohadese Miri 1 , Babak Doustshenas 1 , Ali Reza Safahieh 1 and Mehran Loghmani 2
1. Department of Marine Biology, University of Marine Sciences and Technology, Khoramshahr 64119-43175, Khozestan Province, Iran
2. Department of Marine Biology, University of Chabahar Maritime and Marine Science, Chabahar 99717-56499, Systan and Balochestan Province, Iran
Received: June 20, 2012 / Accepted: November 08, 2012 / Published: March 30, 2013.
Abstract: The brine discharge from desalination plants affects the benthic communities. Polychaetes are indicators to assess marine pollution. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of brine discharge over softbottom polychaete community in Chabahar Bay. Forty-two sediment samples were collected from seven stations in pre summer monsoon (April 2011) and post winter monsoon (October 2011) using Van Veen grab sampler. Changes in the polychaeta data assemblages were analyzed using univariate and multivariate techniques. Thirty-one polychaete species were identified with the highest abundance in station 6 in pre monsoon period and the lowest abundance in station 1 in pre monsoon. The results showed that the abundance, richness and diversity indices were decreased in the stations near the discharges area comparing to control stations far from the brine discharges zone. CCA (Canonical correspondence analysis) showed that salinity and temperature have influenced the community structure of polychaeta.
Key words: Brine discharge, polychaeta, Chabahar Bay.
1. Introduction osmotic balance with their environment, and an increase in salt concentration may result in a
As a result of population growth and scarcity of dehydration of cells, a decrease in turgor pressure, and fresh water resources, desalination of seawater has ultimately, death of larvae and young individuals [4]. been proposed as an alternative and therefore, Polychaete is one of the benthic communities that are desalination plants have increased considerably in used as indicators of marine pollution [5]. They are to recent years. There are 14,451 desalination plants
be found almost in marine ecosystems [6]. The worldwide and the total world capacity is 59.9 million presence or absence of specific polychaetes in marine m 3 /day of portable water [1]. The desalination plants sediments indicates the environmental health [3]. generate large quantities of hypersaline effluents, Therefore, they are widely used in biological which are then discharged into the sea. The difference monitoring. Studies on the effects of brine disposal on in density between the brine and the seawater induces subtidal softbottom, infaunal and epifaunal the formation of a stratified system [2], creating a communities are relatively scarce [3, 7-11]. The bottom layer that can subsequently affect recipient present study seems to be the first study in this respect bentic communities [3]. Marine organisms live in an in the region. We hypothesized that a change in salinity
with varying proximity to a brine discharge from Corresponding author: Seyyed Mohammad Bagher Nabavi,
desalination plant in Chabahar Bay would alter the Ph.D., associate professor, research field: marine biology.
E-mail: smbnabavi@yahoo.com. community structure of polychaeta in the study area.
Effects of a Brine Discharge over Bottom Polychaeta Community Structure in Chabahar Bay
To study polychaete assemblages, three replicates This study was carried out in the coastal zone of
2. Materials and Methods
were collected at each station using Van Veen Grab (0.025 m Chabahar Bay. The study area is characterized by the 2 ), sieved through a 0.5 mm mesh screen and
homogeneity of sediments dominated by silt and clay preserved in buffered formalin. An additional fractions. Collection of sediment samples took place
sediment sample was collected at each station for total at discharge point (St1) and 200 m from the brine
organic matter and grain size analysis. Environmental discharge point (St2). Station 3 was 200 m away from
parameters namely pH, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), (St2) and stations 4 and 5 were 200 m far from (St2,
Temperature and salinity were measured immediately St3). Control stations (St6, St7) were 1 km far from
at each station using Horiba UIO analyzer. Once in the St2 and St4 (Fig. 1), (Table 1).
laboratory, the sediment was oven dried. One sub-sample
Fig. 1 Location of stations in the study area.
Effects of a Brine Discharge over Bottom Polychaeta Community Structure in Chabahar Bay
Table 1 Location of station.
between 8 and 8.3 for the remaining stations. The Stations Location
organic matter percentage ranged between 2.3 to 6.05 Station1
in pre and post monsoon samples. According to these Station2
25°26'17.7" N, 60°29'18.3" E
results, the study area is characterized by the Station3
25°29'12.75" N, 60°29'23.25" E
25°26'14.27" N, 60°29'30.94" E
Station4
homogeneity of sediments. Silt and clay particles were Station5
25°26'07.77" N, 60°29'28.18" E
25°26'11.35" N, 60°29'39.47" E
dominant in all stations (Fig. 2).
Station6
A total of 15,905 polychaete specimens were Station7
25°26'05.66" N, 60°28'52.79" E
collected, which belongs to 31 species, 23 genus and was used for granulometric analysis following 115 families. The most abundance of polychaetes
25°26'0.33" N, 60°28'55.42" E
Buchanan’s methodology [12]. Another sub-sample occurred in station 6 with 3,666.62 and 2,079.92
was used to obtain total organic matter content of dry individuals per m in pre and post monsoon, sediment, estimated by loss of mass on ignition after
respectively. While the lowest values were observed in being ashed at 500 °C for 8 h.
station 1 in pre and post monsoon periods with 306.97
To test differences in abundance number of and zero numbers in m . The results of abundance taxonomic groups and species diversity in seven
analyses detected some significant differences stations in pre summer and post winter monsoons an
between the stations (P < 0.05) (Fig. 3). ANOVA (analysis of variance) was used. To find out
The results of Shannon ( Н'), Simpson (λ), and the correlation between faunal density, ecological
Margalef (R 1 ) indices showed significant differences indices and environmental parameters Pierson index
between stations in post monsoon for Н' and λ and pre were used. All multivariate analyses were performed
monsoon for R 1 . The highest and the lowest values of by using the PRIMER statistical package. Triangular
diversity were observed in stations 7 ( Н' = 1.07) and 1 similarity matrices were calculated using Bray-Curtis
( Н' = 0.34) in pre monsoon and stations 6 (Н' = 1.27) similarity coefficient [12] and abundance values.
and 1 ( Н' = 0) in post monsoon. The results of the Graphical representation of multivariate patterns of
Simpson showed that the highest and the lowest polycheata assemblages was obtained by nMDS
values were observed in stations 6 ( λ = 0.58) and 1 (λ (non-metric multidimensional scaling). To find out the
= 0.43) in pre monsoon and stations 7 ( λ = 0.57) and 1 main factor affecting the community structure of
( λ = 0) in post monsoon. The Margalef index (R 1 ) polychaeta CCA (Canonical Correpondance) through
results indicated that the highest and the lowest values PAST software was used.
were observed in stations 6 (R 1 = 0.94) and 1 (R 1 = 0.1) in pre monsoon and stations 6 (R 1 = 0.49) and 1 (R 1 =
3. Results
0) in post monsoon (Fig. 4).
The results of the environmental parameters showed Analyzing the MDS plot (Fig. 5), we can observe that the sea water temperature values ranged between
changes in polychaeta assemblages during pre and
29.03 °C and 38.02 °C with the maximum mean post monsoon sampling area. In this respect, it can be values at station 1 (32.4 °C and 38.02 °C) in pre
possible to observe the existence of a relatively summer and post winter monsoon, respectively. The
homogenous group of stations which includes stations highest and lowest mean values of salinity were
3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. This group is characterized by the obtained in station 1 (46‰ for pre and 45.02‰ for
presence of Spionidae family as dominance group post monsoon) and stations 6 and 7 (38‰ for pre and
during pre monsoon. Yet, the situation in post 37.83‰ for post monsoon), respectively. The pH
monsoon as a result of relative distribution of values ranged between 7 and 7.3 for station 1 and
individuals between other families is quite different.
Effects of a Brine Discharge over Bottom Polychaeta Community Structure in Chabahar Bay
Fig. 2 Mean (± SD) environmental parameters in different stations and season (pre summer and post winter monsoon).
While the contribution of Spionidae in pre monsoon affecting polychaeta assemblages in the study area. exceeded 91% of the total number of individuals, this
4. Discussion
figure decreased to 29% during post monsoon period. The results represent a segregation of the station
Desalination is a human activity that can affect the which is closer to the discharge [1] with regard to the
bentic faunal abundances and species diversity stations included during post monsoon period (Fig. 5).
through higher density of the brine discharges. It is Analyzing CCA (Fig. 6) shows that salinity and
reasonable to assume that the stations near the brine temperature are the main environmental factors
outflowing from the desalination plant present lower
Effects of a Brine Discharge over Bottom Polychaeta Community Structure in Chabahar Bay
Fig. 3 Mean (± SD) of polychaeta abundance in different stations and seasons (pre summer and post winter monsoon).
Fig. 5 MDS (Multidimensional scaling) plot superimposed with seasons and stations. Pre: ▲; Post: ▼.
Fig. 6 CCA (Canonical correspondence analysis), Vector lines represent the relationship of significant environmental variables to the ordination axes; their length is proportional to their relative significance.
number of species and individuals of polychaeta assemblages than those stations away from the brine discharge area. Polychaetes are widely used as indicators
of environmental organic pollution [13-15], but there are gaps in our knowledge about salinity effects on polychaete assemblages [7]. During our study, we have observed that desalination activity causes a
decrease in abundance and species diversity of polychaete assemblages in pre and post monsoon period in station 1 in which the influence of brine discharges is higher. This decrease was shown to be marked during pre and post monsoon periods in stations 1 with lowest value of assemblages in pre
Fig. 4 Mean (± SD) of ecological indices in different stations
monsoon and the disappearance of polychaete
and seasons (pre summer and post winter monsoon).
assemblages in the post monsoon.
Effects of a Brine Discharge over Bottom Polychaeta Community Structure in Chabahar Bay
Despite the fact that other factors rather than [3] Y. Ruso, J. Carretero, F. Casalduero, J. Lizaso, Spatial and temporal changes in infaunal communities inhabiting
salinity, such as different sources of pollution can softbottoms affected by brine discharged, Marine
affect community structure of polychaetes in the study Environmental Research 64 (2007) 492-503. area, it can be concluded that brine discharges are the
[4] R. Einav, K. Harussi, D. Perry, Footprint of the main causes of the low species diversity and
desalination processes on environment, Desalination 152 (2002) 141-154.
dominance groups in the study area. The results of the [5] T.A. Belan, Marine environmental quality assessment
MDS and CCA analyses of data in the present study using polychaete taxocene characteristics in Vancouver (Figs. 5 and 6) also support this explanation. As the
Harbour, Marine Environmental Research 57 (2004) marine coastal environment is a complex system and
89-101. [6] S. Gopalakrishnan, H. Thilagam, P.V. Raja, Comparison
polychaete groups have different sensitivities to of heavy metal toxicity in life stages (spermiotoxicity,
environmental changes in time and space, thereby it egg toxicity, embryotoxicity and larval toxicity) of would be necessary to continue analyzing the effect of
Hydroides elegans, Chemosphere 71 (3) (2008) 515-528. the brine discharge with respect to space and time in
[7] Y. Ruso, J. Carretero, F. Casalduero, J. Lizaso, Effects of a brine discharge over softbottom polycheata assemblage,
the study area. Environmental Pollution 156 (2008) 240-250.
[8] 5. Conclusion R. Chesher, Biological impact of a large-scale
desalination plant at Key West, vol. 2, Elsevier The results showed that the desalination activity Ocenography Seris., Florida, 1971, pp. 99-164. [9] L. Castriota, A.M. Beltrano, O. Giambalvo, P. Vivota, G.
causes a decrease in abundance, richness and diversity Snseri, A one-year study of the effects of a hyperhaline
in polychaete assemblage of the study area. According discharge from a desalination plant on the zoobentic of these results, the polychaetes assemblage can
communities in the Ustic Island Marine Reserve monitor the brine discharged from the desalination (Southern Tyrrhenian sea), in: CIESM Congress, Monte
Carlo, Monaco, 2001, p. 4.
plant. [10] N. Raventos, E. Macpherson, A. Carcía-Rubiés, Effect of brine discharge from desalination plant on macrobentic
Acknowledgments
communities in the NW Mediterranean, Marine This study was supported by the research fund of Environmental Research 62 (2006) 1-14. [11] R. Riera, F. Tuya, A. Sacramento, E. Ramos, M.
the Khorramshahr Marine Science and Technology Rodríguez, Ó. Monterroso, The effects of brine disposal University. The cooperation and technical support of
on a subtidal meiofauna community, Estuarine, Coastal all the staff of the Marine Department of
and Shelf Science 93 (2011) 359-365. [12] Environmental organizations of Chabahar was J.B. Buchanan, Sediment Analysis in: Method for the Study of Marine Bentose, in: N.A. Holme., A.D.
appreciated for this study. McIntyre (Eds.), Blaackwell, Oxford, 1984. pp. 41-64. [13] K.R. Clarke, Non-parametric multivariate analyses of
Reference
change in community structure, Australian Journal of [1] T. Mezher, H. Fath, Z. Abbas, A. Khaled,
Ecology 18 (1993) 117-143.
Techno-economic assessment and environmental impact [14] S. Abdul-Wahab, Characterization of water discharges of desalination technologies, Desalination 266 (2010)
from two thermal power/desalination plants in man, 263-273.
Environmental Engineering Science 24 (2007) 321-337. [2] J.L. Dupavillon, B.M. Gillanders, Impacts of seawater
[15] S.A. Abdul-Wahab, B.P. Jupp, Levels of metala in desalination on the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia
subtidal sediment in the vicinity of thermal apama in the upper Spencer Gulf, South Australia,
power/desalination plants: A case study, Desalination 244 Marine Environmental Research 67 (2009) 207-218.
(2009) 261-282
Mar. 2013, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 308-312 Journal of Life Sciences, ISSN 1934-7391, USA
Real and Legal Nutritional Alternative (e.g. Application of Free Amino Acids) to Replace Forbidden Doping Substances to Produce Excellent Sport Performance
Andras S. Szabo Food Physics Public Utility Foundation, Faculty of Food Science, Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest 1118, Hungar y
Received: November 16, 2012 / Accepted: January 06, 2013 / Published: March 30, 2013.
Abstract: Peformance enhancing drugs are widely used today in different sport fields, and therefore the successful anti-doping activity should be based not only on regular doping controls, but also it should show the real alternative: how to replace the forbidden doping substances with legal and effective supplements. The paper deals with application proposition of protein concentrates, free AA (amino acids), HMB (hydroxy-methyle-butyrate), creatine and carnitine. If the athlete is involved in strength and power sport (e.g. throwing events in track and field, olympic weightlifting etc.), the explosive and maximum strength is of primary importance. For strength athletes, these mentioned substances are those legal preparates, supplements, which can help effectively in performance improvement of sport results. The main reason is that using protein concentrates, AAs, HMB, creatine and carnitine, the anabolic (and anticatabolic) effect will enhance the protein biosynthesis of the organism, improve the aerob and anaerob capacity of the athletes, activate and stimulate the own hormonal system. And the final result is creating higher loadability because of the faster recovery, and higher performance level on the competition. Of course, the athletes—as a minimum requirement—need an adequate nutrition (good balanced nourishment), as well, with appropriate application and supplementation of all vitamins and essential minerals.
Key words: Carnitine, creatine, HMB, protein concentrate, strength, supplement.
1. Introduction
WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) was set up in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1999, as a result of what
Top sport—e.g. Olympic Games, World was called “of Lausanne”, to promote, coordinate Championships, Continental Championships, Grand and monitor the fight against drugs, performance Prix events, World Cup Galas—is a dominant part of enhancing materials and methods in sport. the modern world. The best athletes are more famous Of course, the success of the fight against doping, (and better paid!) than even leading politicians, artists with aim to eliminate the application of forbidden and or scientists. Unfortunately in the last decades of the on the human health very dangerous substances and human history, one of the biggest problems of the top methods depends also on the existence of legal but sport is doping. Doping is the willing or unwilling really effective alternatives. Control is necessary, but usage by competitors of substances (and methods), it is evidently not enough. We have to give true that have been banned by the International Olympic information also about the side effects of doping Committee or other international sport federations. It substances and in the same time correct research is a fact that various performance enhancing drugs are results about the effect of legal supplements on the widely used in different fields of sport activities. performance level of the athletes. Anyway, the “Holy
Corresponding author: Andras S. Szabo, Ph.D., professor, Trinity” of prevention-education-control must bring its
research fields: food and nutrition science. E-mail:
fruits after all, sooner or later.
andras.szabo@uni-corvius.hu.
Real and Legal Nutritional Alternative (e.g. Application of Free Amino Acids) to
Replace Forbidden Doping Substances to Produce Excellent Sport Performance
The question what we have to answer is the they need protein concentrates, as well. It is known following: Can we replace forbidden, illegal substances
that the nutrition of strength athletes differs with legal medicaments and food supplements? Do we
significantly from the nutrition of non-sportsmen and have really these materials? Is it possible to get
endurance athletes. Protein-rich diets have been in use excellent results using only legal supplementation?
since decades. Earlier the high protein-requirement In this paper information is given about the protein
was covered mainly by means of protein rich requirement of strength athletes and application of
foodstuffs (e.g. meat, cheese), but today more and protein concentrates, the effects of free AAs (amino
more special preparates (protein concentrates, protein acids), HMB (Hydroxy-Methyle-Butirate), creatine
isolates, free amino acids, etc.) are advocated and and carnitine on the body. To the opinion of many
applied. The main reason for the increased protein top athletes, coaches, researchers and scientists, the
need (2.0-2.5 g/kg bodyweight) of strength athletes is regular intake of such type of substances has e.g. a
the following:
very strong anabolic effect on the body (increased extra requirement of muscle synthesis; muscle synthesis) and produces higher loadability
increased maintenance requirement depending on and faster recovery after heavy and intensive
greater muscle mass (higher muscle ratio of the body); workouts. In other words—of course as a
increased wear and tear of essential proteins and consequence of higher volume and higher intensity
N-compounds (heavy workouts);
training—better result, so the application of these the pool of free amino acids in the tissues as an supplements can be considered not only as a legal,
additional reservoir and protection against unwanted but in the same time an effective way to performance
losses of body protein.
increase [1-13]. Let us mention that the name of protein (and proton Supplementation in top sport is a necessity,
as a particle in the nucleus of the atom) comes from however supplementation is only a complement (but
Greek word meaning the first. Firstly important. Yes, very important complement) to the normal dietary
proteins—nitrogen containing organic food. Even the elite athletes need first of all a good
compounds—are those substances which are firstly balanced conventional nourishment (adequate important for human beings. During metabolism the nutrition), and mineral (macro- and microelements)
body can make fat and carbohydrate from protein, but and vitamin supplementation. This is the fundament,
cannot produce (synthetise) protein from fat or but to build up a good, high, stabile building, we need
carbohydrates. Protein can be inefficiently used as
a strong fundament. This can be taken as a minimum energy by converting amino acids to glucose, but it is requirement. To cover the real energy, vitamin and
primarily used by the body to build and repair tissues. minerals need of the body is the fundament as well as
In case of strength atletes, the energy% of the basic fundament to healthy life and sport performance.
nutrients can be approximately the following: protein: 20%, carbohydrates: 50%, fat: 30%. If too much
2. Protein Need, Application of Protein
protein is taken in, the excess may be stored as
Concentrates
bodyfat. But too much protein is not healthy (omnis In case of top strength athletes (e.g. lifters, sprinters,
saturatio mala), the protein surplus has negative effect where the dynamic and maximum strength is of
on the excretion system.
primary importance), the protein requirement is rather The main conclusions concerning the application of high, the normal and conventional food does not
protein concentrates are the following:
contain the necessary amount of proteins. Therefore, The intake of protein concentrates has a
Real and Legal Nutritional Alternative (e.g. Application of Free Amino Acids) to Replace Forbidden Doping Substances to Produce Excellent Sport Performance
favourable effect on the muscle development and asparagine—can be transformed into each other in the performance improvement in strength sports;
metabolic processes. There are more than 20 different At most a quarter of protein need can be given in
amino acids, building up the human proteins. In form of protein concentrates or isolates, the bigger
general the biological value of animal proteins is part should be covered by normal dietary food;
significantly higher than in case of plant proteins, If the protein requirement of the athlete is
because the chemical composition of proteins in approximately 200 g/day, 40-50 g protein concentrate
animal and human tissues is rather close. So the need can be suggested per day, but this amount should be
from high quality proteins (e.g. meat or cheese divided into two doses, as minimum;
protein)—because of the more favourable AA With high level protein concentrate intake it is
composition—is less than in case of plant proteins (e.g. necessary to increase the fibre content of the diet (e.g.
wheat protein) with different essential AA spectrum. eating fruits) to prevent the constipation;
From biological point of view, the following amino After 4-6 weeks of taking protein preparations—in
acid effects are known:
case of continous complementation—some days breaks Support of hormone production (e.g., ingestion of are recommended.
arginine and ornithine increases the release of HGH (human growth hormone) to support muscle growth,
3. Biological Role of Amino Acids
therefore, these amino acids are widely practised, e.g., in The building blocks of proteins are the amino acids.
powerlifting, body building and in other strength sports);
A chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide, so Promotion of gluconeogenesis BCAA (the proteins are polypeptides. The proteins or rather their
branched-chain amino acids) like valine, leucine, constituents, the amino acids, must be ingested in
isoleucine are very useful in glucose production, and sufficient quantities to prevent a negative nitrogen
they work best when taken in conjunction with balance occurring and to produce positive thiamine, biotin and pantothenic acid); physiological effect concerning the sport performance
Increased muscle development (a number of of the athletes. So finally the body does not need
amino acids, e.g. arginine, ornithine have a strong proteins, the body needs amino acids, and from these
building-up—anabolic—effect on muscle metabolism, AAs will build up the own tissues. But in the normal
and the anabolism is promoted through the stimulation human conventional nutrition we eat food, containing
of insulin release);
proteins (plant and animal origin ones) and we get the Influence on the immune system (e.g. glutamine amino acids from decomposition of proteins during
can stabilise the defence performance of the immune digestion. The human body cannot change (modify)
system, and the defence readiness of the immune all ingested amino acids in the metabolic process. This
system is of great significance for the avoidance of has resulted in the amino acids being divided into
overtraining);
essential, semi-essential and non-essential ones, in other promotion of performance capacity and faster words, indispensable and dispensable amino acids.
regeneration (BCAAs play a key role in supporting the Essential amino acids are those which the body
recovery process, ingestion of e.g. glutamine shortens cannot produce—e.g., leucine, lysine—and is thus
the regeneration time, producing faster recovery); dependent on them being constantly supplied.
Reduction of protein catabolism, protection Semi-essential amino acids — e.g. histidine, against own protein decomposition and muscle arginine—are produced by the body to a limited extent.
breakdown (many amino acids, like leucine, valine Non-essential amino acids—e.g. alanine, glutamine,
have a strong anticatabolic effect, creating a positive
Real and Legal Nutritional Alternative (e.g. Application of Free Amino Acids) to
Replace Forbidden Doping Substances to Produce Excellent Sport Performance
nitrogen balance in the muscles). mass and strength during resistance training. HMB has a strong anticatabolic and fat burning effect, the
4. Aim of Application of Free Amino Acids in
daily dose proposition is 3 × 1 g. Supplementing with
Sport
leucine and/or HMB may inhibit protein degradation There are hundreds of different amino acid
during periods associated with increased proteolysis, supplements on the market (e.g. preparates of Scitec
such as high intensity strength training. Nutrition, MLO, MUSASHI). Why to applicate these
6. Application of Creatine
products? The reasons are the following: enhancement of protein biosynthesis of the body,
Creatine is a physiologically active substance, strong anabolic, muscle building effect (e.g. limiting
which is produced in the liver, kidneys and pancreas AAs, methionine, lysine, tryptophane);
from three amino acids, arginine, glycine and anticatabolic effect, prevention and protection
methionine. Additionally about 1 g is ingested daily against muscle protein breakdown (e.g. valine, leucine,
with normal food. The main creatine sources are meat BCAA);
and fish. Mutton, beef and pork are really rich in fat burning effect (e.g. arginine, taurine, lysine);
creatine. Vegetarians ingest practically no creatine, so improvement of immune system (e.g. ornitine,
they are entirely dependent on self-synthesis. In case glutamine, arginine);
of explosive strength performances, the creatine enhancement of recovery, effective and fast
requirement is rather high, because of the production regeneration (e.g. tyrosine, glutamine);
of creatine phosphate. Creatine is—according to the protection against over-training, over-work (e.g.
American College of Sports Medicine—the most asparagine, tyrosine, BCAA);
popular sports nutritional supplement recently. activation, stimulation of the own hormonal
Ingestion of higher doses of creatine—0-20 g system, increased release of HGH (e.g. ornitine,
daily—influences the short duration lactic arginine, lysine).
performances. Creatine application in different Speaking about the effects for athletes in top sport,
forms—monohydrate or phosphate—can increase the the dominant one is the last one, because the
strength, the lean body mass, because of positive fundament for performance increase is the adaptation
N-retention and increased water-holding capacity. In process, but this can be achieved only if the volume
general creatine ingestion has a favourable effect on and intensity of the training is really very high. And
the speed of recovery process in the body, as well. with activation of the hormonal system—and of
Creatine supplementation can significantly increase course in consequence of enhancement of recovery
the anaerobic performance capacity, but some athletes and protection against overwork, as well—this is a
do not react really to creatine ingestion. Creatine reality, using these AAs.
ingestion leads to significant performance improvement only in those athletes who can produce
5. Application of HMB
so more CP (creatine phosphate) which is necessary in The physiological effect of HMB is similar to the
resynthesis of ADP to ATP.
effect of free AAs. This
7. Application of Carnitine
substance—hydroxy-methyle-butyrate—is the product of leucine metabolism. The leucine metabolite HMB
L-carnitine (lactin word carnis means meat) is a (more exactly the calcium salt of hydroxyl-methyl
substance produced by the body from methionine and butyric acid) has recently become a popular dietary
lysine mainly in the liver, but also in kidneys and supplement purported to promote gains in fat-free
testicles. four other factors—niacin, vitamin B-6,
Real and Legal Nutritional Alternative (e.g. Application of Free Amino Acids) to Replace Forbidden Doping Substances to Produce Excellent Sport Performance
vitamin C and iron—are also necessary for carnitine
proposition is the following:
synthesis in the body. Although the muscles cannot adequate nutrition, appropriate, good balanced produce carnitine, the muscles are the largest carnitine
nourishment (conventional food); store, approximately 98% of the total 20-25 g
supplementation with vitamins and minerals carnitine of the human body is stored in them. The
(macro and essential trace elements); produced carnitine is complemented by the daily
application of high quality protein (dominantly ingestion of meat and dairy products. Mutton and beef
animal) concentrates or isolates;
are the most productive foods containing carnitine, supplementation with free amino acids, including
chicken, fish contain less. Because the body synthesis
BCAAs;
supplementation with HMB; only approximately 25% of its carnitine requirement
itself, the bigger part must be supplied in food. supplementation with creatine;
supplementation with carnitine. Therefore, competitive athletes easily can get into a
state of carnitine-deficiency.
References
Application of L-carnitine has the some advantages: [1] C. Barnett, D.L. Costill, M.D. Vukovich, K.J. Cole, B.H.
promotion of the fat utilization; Goodpaster, S.W. Trappe, et al., Effect of L-carnitine increase of aerobic energy metabolism;
supplementation on muscle and blood carnitine content
reduction of lactate build-up; and lactate accumulation during high-intensity sprint
cycling, Int. J. Sport Nutr. 4 (3) (1994) 280-288. shortening of regeneration time;
[2] A. Bean, The Complete Guide to Sports Nutrition, A&C increase of the immunological defence;
Black Publishers Ltd, UK, 2003. improvement of blood supply to muscles;
[3] M.G. Bemben, H.S. Lamont, Creatine supplementation and
protection against overtraining; exercise performance, Sports Med. 35 (2) (2005) 107-125.
[4] W. Brandt, Protein for the weightlifter, World prevention of protein breakdown.
Weightlifting (4) 1982 47-48.
It is well-known that the application of [5] L. Burke, V. Deakin, Clinical Sports Nutrition, Australian
Institute of Sport, McGraw-Hill, 2009. carnitine—because it increases the aerob performance
[6] H. Erbersdobler, Report concerning the need and the use capacity of the athletes—is not typical in strength sport,
of protein rich food supplements for athletes and but widely used for endurance athletes (e.g. long
sportsmen during heavy training periods, World Weightlifting, Scientific supplement (1) (1986) 2-5.
distance running, triathlon). Let us mention that the [7] K. Inge, Karen Inge's high performance training diet, speed of recovery process (after intensive anaerob
Sunrice Australia, Leeton, 1991. training) is a function of the aerob capacity, as well, ’ [8] S. Macht, Sportsmen s nutrition adjusted to training, World
Weightlifting, Scientific Supplement (1) (1986) 6-7. therefore the application of carnitine can be considered
[9] P. McCarthy, How much protein do athletes really need?, as useful agent also for strength athletes, having high
Physician and Sports Medicine 17 (1989) 173-175. volume and high intensity workouts. So—because the
[10] A.S. Szabo, Up-to-date Nutrition for Support of Strength key question in elite sport is the enhancement of Training, 3rd in Int. Conf. on Strength Training, Budapest,
abstract book, 2002, pp. 42-43.
recovery, and this is based on the aerob capacity of the [11] A.S. Szabo, What kind of food supplements to use body—the application of carnitine can be considered as
instead of forbidden substances to produce high
a really useful proposition also for strength athletes. performance level in top sport?, Sport Scientific & Practical Aspects 8(2) (2011) 53-55.
The proposed daily dose is 2 × 250 mg. [12] A.S. Szabo, I. Laszlo, Importance of protein concentrates in the nutrition of top weightlifters, in: Weightlifting
8. Conclusions
Symposium, Ancient Olympia, Greece, Proc, (Ed.) A. To produce a high performance level in top strength
Lukacsfalvi, IWF, Budapest, 1993, pp. 159-166. [13] A.S. Szabo, I. Laszlo, A. Zsinka, M. Petrekanits, Some
sports on legal basis, without illegal doping questions of contemporary nutrition of strength athletes, XVI.
substances, like steroids, growth hormones, etc., the Int. Congress of Nutrition, IUNS, Montreal, Canada, 1997.
Mar. 2013, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 313-321 Journal of Life Sciences, ISSN 1934-7391, USA
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
Assia Bekkouche, Fouzia Ayache and Mohammed Bouazza Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University Abou Bakr Belkaid, Tlemcen 13000, Algeria
Received: August 10, 2012 / Accepted: December 03, 2012 / Published: March 30, 2013.
Abstract: The last decade was marked by the special interest in flora, biological characteristics, its adaptation to climate fluctuations and the influence of human activities. The steppe climate is generally characterized by its heterogeneity.
The lower semi-arid: 300 mm to 400 mm per year; The arid higher: 200 mm to 300 mm per year; The arid lower: between 100 mm and 200 mm per year. Its wide analysis of a region is based on data provided by weather stations; a summary of the climate study area was analyzed with
representative stations (Ain Sefra, El Aricha, Ras el-Ma, Saf-Saf). This steppe is in various states of degradation, consisting of Stipa tenacissima , Artemisia herba alba, Biscutella didyma, Spartium junceum and Lepidium glastifolium, etc..
Key words: Bioclimate, steppe, Algeria, the semi-arid, ombrothermiques diagrams.
1. Introduction The climate in the region of Tlemcen is Mediterranean, characterized by a marked drought
The climate is the pattern of weather (temperature, summer and rainy winter. This has been confirmed by precipitation, wind etc.) that characterizes the mean
several authors [5-9].
state of the atmosphere and its evolution in a given The authors will determine the climatic location. environment in which grows the steppe vegetation of The climate plays a key role in the distribution and Tlemcen. This atmosphere is influenced by several development of plants and the soil [1, 2]. This is the
factors that are crucial:
factor that is placed upstream of any study on the The pivotal position between the mounts of functioning of ecological systems [3].
Tlemcen and the steppe zone;
Generally, dry lands are those that receive between
The exposure;
100 mm and 300 mm of rain per year. For the
The altitude.
semi-arid, annual precipitation is between 300 mm Geographical Situation: The study area (Fig. 1) lies and 600 mm [4]. in western Algeria, the territory is a vast eco-resort To appreciate these fluctuations in space and time, located in south of Tlemcen. In this eco-resort, we the different climatic factors (precipitation, identified three circles forming the various degrees of temperature) on the steppe vegetation, we pay degradation (climate variability and human actions). particular attention to effects of climate on the The steppe landscape Tlemcen is located between evolution of these steppe species. 1°27' and 1°51' west longitude and 34°27' and 35°18'
north latitude, it covers an area of 3268.4 km 2 and Corresponding author: Assia Bekkouche, M.A.A., M.A.B.,
perimeter 606.76 km.
Ph.D., research fields: ecology and environment. E-mail: assoasso1399@yahoo.fr.
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
Fig. 1 Location of the steppe of Tlemcen.
2. Methods between different seasons [11].
In the steppes, Djebaili [12, 13] notes that there is a Selection of Stations, the Period and Duration: positive gradient from west to east. But from north to The meteorological network should be south, there is a negative gradient, so there is a representative. In an effort to clearly identify the zonal
significant decrease in the rain.
climatic influences on local conditions, we selected
1-Monthly regime:
weather stations that are located near the study Analysis of monthly means rainfall data to better sites (Table 1). visualize the distribution of quantities of water For this purpose it is necessary to consider a period recorded at each station and every month of the year. of about 25 years. Our study is mainly focused on a From the mean monthly precipitation (Fig. 2) for comparison of current climate conditions to those of the former and the current period, we can distinguish: the ancient period SELTZER (1913-1938). Monthly regimes that are characterized by two Data from this last period were obtained from the
rainfall maxima:
memento SELTZER [10] and that of 1984-2011 were Ain Sefra: October and November for both periods. provided by the ONM Zenata (National Meteorological Maxima are 29 mm for the new and the old period; Office). El Aricha: January and March for both periods:
3. Resultts and Discussion
The previous period (1913-1938): 29.1 mm to 32 mm in January and March.
3.1 Rainfall Patterns The new period (1984-2011): 23.3 mm and 28.2
Knowing the average rainfall is very useful but to
mm in January to March.
inform studies of the distribution of rain, we must add Ras El Ma: March and November for the two that of rainfall, that is to say, the distribution of rainfall
periods:
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
Table 1 Geographic data from weather stations.
Stations West longitudes
Wilaya Aïn Sefra
Northern latitudes
Elevation (m)
Naâma ELAricha
Tlemcen Ras El-Ma
Sidi Bel Abbès Saf Saf
Tlemcen Source: (National office of the Meteo. Tlemcen).
Fig. 2 Precipitation per month.
The previous period (1913-1938): 33 mm to 35 mm Various works, especially those of Dagef [15] and in March and November;
Emberger [16, 17], were performed on the seasonal The new period (1984-2011): 54.3 mm to 47.6 mm
pattern and show the importance of ecological studies in March and November.
of natural environments in relation to the distribution of Saf-Saf: March and December for the previous
rainfall of the year by season.
period and in March and November for the new period: For this, Musset [18] proposed the coefficient on The previous period (1913-1938): 72 mm to 76 mm
seasonal: that is to calculate the amount of rainfall per in March and December;
season and to determine the classification of the stations The new period (1984-2011): 50.1 mm to 49 mm in
in order of decreasing rainfall, pointing to each season March and November.
(H: Winter, P: spring, E: summer and A: autumn). Cyclonic rainfall increased between December and
Csr = Ps × 4 / Pa March to provide the majority of total annual
Crs : coefficient related seasonal Musset; Ps: precipitation (60%) [14].
seasonal precipitation; Pa: annual rainfall. Summer rainfall is very low in July and August
In general, the closer low Crs the coefficient is, more that in both periods. They can reach up to 1.2 mm;
rain is distributed. From the results (Table 2), one can El Ain Sefra and Aricha are considered the driest
argue that there is a rather irregular distribution of (P < 200mm);
rainfall within the steppes of Tlemcen. This Finally, the new period is characterized by a
distribution makes it difficult for the recovery of decrease in monthly precipitation for most stations.
biological activity and development of systems Seasonal regime:
adaptations of steppe species [19].
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
This coefficient does not exclude the erosive and 9 °C in Saf-Saf, for the former period, and 4.8 °C in potential of rainfall, since it is depended on:
El Aricha and 9.7 °C in Ras El Ma for the new period. The plant cover;
The coldest period lasts from December to March. The intensity of rainfall and its repetition during
The cold season is the period during which the the year;
temperatures are the lowest of the year and where Slope that accentuates the live load of runoff and
average temperatures are below 10 °C. therefore erosion.
The months of July and August are considered the These results (Table 2) allow us to see that the
hottest months of the year.
seasonal pattern of steppe landscape in both periods From the comparison between the average annual varies substantially as follows: APHE, AHPE, HPAE,
temperatures of the two periods we were able to HAPE: H: winter, P: spring, E: summer and A: autumn.
confirm the presence of a climate change reflecting a The former period was characterized by a higher average annual temperature about 1.5 °C. maximum fall in Ain El Sefra and Aricha, generally
The consequence of this rise in temperature is corresponding to the percentages included in the
favorable to growing phenomena of steppe. ranges of 35-40% compared to the total average for
3.3 Thermal Average Amplitude and Continentally the year.
Index
3.2 Average Monthly Temperature
(1) Thermal amplitudes
Analysis of the results (Fig. 3) allows to obtain the The temperature range is defined by the difference following conclusions:
of the maxima (M) on the one hand and minimum (m) The monthly average temperatures for the resort
on the other. Its value is ecologically important to of Ain Sefra range from 6.05 °C and 30.08 °C;
know because it shows the extreme thermal limit to For the station of El Aricha monthly average
which each year the plants are resistant [12]. temperatures are between 5 °C and 24.85 °C for the
Le Houerou [20] states that in pre-Saharan steppe previous period, for the new period, the monthly
inland, the temperature range is up to 40 °C. average is between 4.8 °C and 27.7 °C;
(2) Continentally index
On the resort of Ras el-Ma, the monthly average According to Debrach [21], four types of climates temperatures range from 8.78 °C to 24.1 °C;
can be calculated from M and m:
The monthly average temperatures for the station M m <15 °C: island climate; Saf-Saf are between 9 °C and 24.7 °C.
15 °C < M m < 25 °C: coastal climate; For all the weather stations, the coldest month is
25 °C < M m < 35 °C: semi-continental climate; January. Temperatures vary between 5 °C in El Aricha
M m > 35 °C: continental climate.
Table 2 Plans of seasonal weather stations with seasonal coefficient of relative MUSSET (O and N = old and new times).
Seasonal Stations
Seasons
Winter (H) Spring (P) Summer (E) Autumn (A)
Ap (mm) Ps (mm) Crs
Ps (mm) Crs
patterns O 34 0.71 52 1.08 30 0.62 76 1.58 192 APHE
Ps (mm) Crs
Ps (mm) Crs
Aïn Sefra N 40.23 1.06
26.88 0.70 49.76 1.31 151.89 AHPE O 85.1
1.15 70.1 0.94 43.8 0.59 87 1.17 296.8 AHPE El Aricha N 69
30.89 0.62 48.2 0.97 198 HPAE O 89 1.18 81 1.08 44 0.58 84 1.11 301 HAPE
Ras El-Ma N 125
1.41 315.6 HAPE O 210 1.54 125 0.92 20 0.14 186 1.37 545 HAPE
Saf-Saf
N 139.1 1.61 70.4 0.81 19.8 0.23 115.3
1.33 345.2 HAPE
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
Fig. 3 Average monthly temperatures.
Table 3 shows clearly that: area bounded by the curves of average temperatures The resort of Ain Sefra is characterized by a
and average rainfall between stations is significantly continental climate in both periods.
larger for all stations from the former period. The stations of El Aricha and Ras El-Ma have two
For the station of Ain Sefra, the dry season types of climate:
extends from March to October for the previous A continental climate in the former period;
period and from May to September for the new A semi-continental climate for the new period.
period;
The station Saf-Saf is influenced by a The resort of El Aricha is characterized by three semi-continental climate in both periods.
months of drought (June, July and August) for the These types of climate cause the installation of a
previous period and from May to August or four floristic steppe characterized by the presence of the
months of drought for the new period; following species: Stipa tenacissima; Artemisia
For Ras El-Ma, the dry season lasts from May to herba-alba ; Astragalus armatus.
October or five months of drought. Whereas it exceeds six months (from mid-April to
3.4 Diagrams Ombrothermiques mid-November) for the new period;
Bagnouls and Gaussen [22] have drawn a diagram Finally, the station shows Saf-Saf, half of that allows to identify the duration of the dry period
drought for the 4 months to 6 months old during the which is based on the comparison of monthly average
current period.
temperatures in °C, and precipitation in mm scale for The progressive development of drought requires a rainfall is twice that adopted for the temperature “P ≤
high evapotranspiration vegetation, allowing it to 2T”.
develop adaptive systems, changing the landscape by Interpretation of diagrams (Fig. 4) shows that the
imposing a xerophytic vegetation [23].
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
Table 3 Type of climate according to DEBRACH (O and N = old and new times).
Stations
Type of climate O 37.6
M (°C)
m (°C)
Thermal amplitudes
37.9 Continental Aïn Sefra N 37.24
0.9 36.34 Continental El Aricha
O 35.60
37.1 Continental N 32.94
0 32.94 Semi-continental Ras El-Ma
O 38.19 0.59 37.6 Continental N 32.2
3.5 28.7 Semi-continental O 32.8
5.8 27 Semi-continental Saf-Saf N 31.2
2.9 28.3 Semi-continental
Fig. 4 Ombrothermiques Diagrams.
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
3.5 Pluviothermiques Quotient and Stages of The resort of Ras El-Ma undergoes a shift from Bioclimatic Emberger
semi-arid bioclimatic stage in winter cool, in winter arid to temperate;
The Emberger index is particularly suited to Finally station Saf-Saf passes the winter in Mediterranean regions where it can distinguish temperate subhumid to semiarid with cool winters.
different climatic stages. In these regions, Emberger In Western region, M. Barbero Loisel, [24] confirm
noted that the thermal amplitude (M-m) is an this trend of aridification. In fact 30 to 40 years apart,
important factor in the distribution of plants. The in the continental steppes, temperatures have generally
Emberger Q2 index is given by the formula: Q
2 = 2000 P / (M -m ) = 1000 P / (M + m/2) (M - m) increased from 1 °C to 2 °C through “m”. where: P: average annual rainfall; M: average
Such climate change may also cause a change in maximum temperature of the warmest month (T +273
plant community by the proliferation of active K); m: average minimum of the coldest month (T
dry-land species to other dry-land species passive +273 K).
The Q2 shows a vertical and horizontal
3.6 Degradation Factor
movement of the weather stations studied (Fig. 5); The resort of Ain Sefra changes from arid to arid
According to Ramade [26], “The destruction of with cold winter to cool winter;
natural plant communities was often a prelude to The resort of El Aricha exchange semi-arid to
aridification and desertification in many areas arid with cold winter to cool winter;
delivered to the crop or pasture turned into ...”.
Fig. 5 Climagramme pluviothermic Emberger.
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
For 30 years, the steppe ecosystem has been life history of species, conditions that influence its completely changed, both in its structure and its
development as a chaotic collection, fire [33-35], operation through its primary productivity. We are
which causes an irreversible change of the vegetation. witnessing a gradual silting up of the soft wind in some
4. Conclusion
areas to train in other real dunes. The reduction of vegetation cover and change in
Our stations are located in the floor semi-arid and floristic composition are the elements that characterize
arid, characterized by a cold, cool or temperate winter. the regressive evolution of the steppe.
Analysis of data showed that the dry season usually
3.6.1 Physical Factors starts in May and lasts through October.
3.6.1.1 Drought Seasonal precipitation shows that overall the season The climate of the Algerian steppe is characterized
autumn (A) and winter (H) are the wettest. For the by high interannual rainfall variability. Reduced rainfall
summer, it is characterized by scarce rainfall for most is about 18% to 27% and the duration of the dry season
weather stations.
would have increased by two months between the two According to the classification of thermal [21], we periods 1913-1938 and 1978-1990 [27].
have two types of climates namely, semi-continental Benabadji and Bouazza [28, 29] state that, in the
stations of El Aricha, Ras El Ma and Saf-Saf and steppe zone atmosphere arid climate, the dry period
continental station of Ain Sefra. This difference is due can extend up to nine months.
to the combined influence of the sea, terrain and
3.6.1.2 Wind erosion
altitude.
For this factor, the middle of the steppe zones are In general, one can identify a tendency of the arid very susceptible to erosion once the steppe vegetation
climate worm, which may favor the establishment of disappears. The use of management techniques and
steppe vegetation as: Stipa tenacissima, Artemisia land management is necessary.
herba alba , Noaea mucronata and Peganum These techniques are based on the judicious use of
harmala etc..
rainwater and the planting of woody species adapted
References
to these areas, contributing both to increasing the [1] J. Boulaine, Hydropedologie, National Schools of Rural production and protection against soil erosion [30].
Engineering, Water and Forestry, Algiers, Algeria, 1971,
3.6.2 Human factors
p. 122.
The current trend of desertification is a phenomenon [2] J. Torrent, Geness and properties of the sols caused by man (clearing for cereal crops). Mediterranean region, Universita Degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, dip.disc.chimi-agrarie, 1995, p. 111.
Benchetrit [31] states that the human intervention [3] R. Thinthoin, The physical aspects of the Tell Oran, test
makes it unstable soils due to erosion following their morphology of semi-arid countries, Published with the denudation.
assistance of C.N.R.S. Ed L. Fouque, 1948, p. 639.
3.6.2.1 Overgrazing [4] L. Emberger, Work in Botany and Ecology, Masson Ed.,
Paris, 1971, p. 520.
Overgrazing is defined as a collection of a quantity [5] L. Emberger, On the applicable formula climate, CRAcad.
of vegetable than the annual production pathways [32]. Sci. Botanical Geography, 1930, pp. 389-390. The distribution of vegetation was completely [6]
V. Conrad, Usual formula of continentality and their disrupted by man (overgrazing) then we have a fragile
limits of validity, Frans. Ann. Geog Union (1943) eco-complex. 663-664. [7] Ch. Sauvage, Research geobotanical on cork oak in
3.6.2.2 Clearing and Extension of Cereal Morocco, Doct. Thesis, Montpellier, 1960. Irrational human practices without respect for the
[8] L. Bortoli, M. Gounot, J.C. Jacquinet, Climatology and
The Bioclimate in the Steppe of Tlemcen (Oran, Western Algeria)
bioclimatology Northern Tunisia, Ann. INRAT (1969) groups psammophytes the region of Tlemcen (Western 1-3.
Algeria), Doct. Thesis, Tlemcen, 2010. [9] P.H. Daget, A current element characterization of the
[24] M. Barbero, R. Loisel, P. Quezel, Characterization of Mediterranean world: The climate, Nat. Mons. H.S.
bioclimatic stages of forest vegetation in the (1980) 101-126.
Mediterranean, methodological aspect raised by the [10] P. Seltzer, The climate of Algeria, Inst. Meteo. and Phys.
zoning, Coll. Int. Ecol. Haute Altitude (1982) 191-202. University of the Globe, Algiers, 1946, p. 219.
[25] M. Amara, Contribution to the study of Pistacia atlantica [11]
A. Angot, Elementary treatise on meteorology, Edith in northwestern Algeria: Appearance and ecological Gauthier-Villars et Cie, Paris, 1916, p. 415.
cartography, Magis Thesis, Tlemcen, 2009. [12] S. Djebaili, Phytoecological and phytosociological
F. Ramade, Mediterranean ecosystem conservation, research on the vegetation of high steppe plains of the
Economica, Paris, 1983, p. 189.
Algerian Saharan Atlas, Doct. Thesis, Montpellier, 1978. [27] Y. Djellouili, D. Nedjraoui, Evolution of Mediterranean [13] S. Djebaili, Algerienne.phytosociologie steppe and
rangelands, Vertigo 8 (3) (1995) 1-9. ecology, Edit OPU Alger, 1984, p. 177.
[28] N. Benabadji, M. Bouazza, Contribution to a bioclimatic [14]
A. Halimi, The Atlas Blidéen: Climate and plant floors, study of the steppe Artemesia herba alba Asso. (Western Edit O.P.U. Algiers, 1980, p. 484.
Algeria), Book Drought (2) (2000) 117-123. [15] P.H. Daget, The Mediterranean bioclimate, general
[29] N. Benabadji, M. Bouazza, Some climate changes have characteristics, modes of characterization, Vegetation
occurred in the southwestern Oran, (Western Algeria), (1977) 1-20.
Rev. Energ. Ren. (3) (2000) 117-125. [16] L. Emberger, A proposed classification of climates
[30] P. Dutuit, Y. Pourrat, V.L. Dodeman, Strategy for Phytogeographically, Bull. Hist. Nat. Toulouse Sc. (1942)
implementing a system of species adapted to arid 97-124.
conditions around the Mediterranean, Rev. l improvement [17] L. Emberger, A biogeographic classification of climates,
of plants for adaptation to arid environments, Ed Rev. Trav. Lab. Bot. Zool. Fac. Science, Montpellier,
AUPELF-UREF, Paris, 1991, pp. 65-73. (1955) 1-43.
[31] M. Benchetrit, The current erosion and its impact on [18]
A. Chaâbane, Study of vegetation the northern coast of development in Algerie, Pub.Univ.De Poitiers.XI.PUF., Tunisia: Typology, syntaxonomy, and design elements,
1972, p. 216.
Doct. Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 1993. [32] H.N. Le Houerou, Consideration of biogeographic arid [19] M. Bouazza, Some thoughts on the ecological zoning and
steppes of northern Africa, Drought (6) (1995) 167-182. the importance of edaphic steppe stands, Communication
[33] Z. Mehdadi, Z. Benaouda, S. Belbraouet, H. Benhassaini, Seminar Maghreb, Tlemcen, Algeria, 1990.
L. Hamel, M. Benal, Seasonal variations in leaf [20] H.N. Le Houerou, Bioclimatology and biogeography of
composition of Stipa tenacissima L. total lipids and fatty arid steppes of northern Africa, in: Options
acids, Drought 17 (4) (2006) 493-498. Mediterranean and Research Studies, 1995, pp. 1-396.
[34] M. Bouazza, Study phytoecological steppe of Stipa [21] J. Debrach, Notes on the climates of western Morocco,
tenacissima to L. Et Lygeum Spartium L, south of Southern Morocco, 1959, pp. 1122-1134.
Sebdou (Oran, Algeria), Doct. Thesis, Tlemcen, 1995. [22]
F. Bagnouls, H. Gaussen, Geography of Plants, 2nd ed., [35] M. Bouazza, N. Benabadji, R. Loisel, G. Metge, 1954, p. 233.
Evolution of the steppe vegetation in south-west of Oran [23]
H. Stambouli-Meziane, Contribution to the study of (Algeria), Rev. Ecol. Med. (2) (2004) 219-231.
Mar. 2013, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 322-332 Journal of Life Sciences, ISSN 1934-7391, USA
Biology and Culture
Joseph Neumann 1, 2 1. Department of Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel
2. Department of Philosophy, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel
Received: October 6, 2012 / Accepted: January 08, 2013 / Published: March 30, 2013.
Abstract: Human beings do not live in nature, they live in culture. Contrary to biological evolution, which is based on genetic inheritance, cultural change is transmitted by instruction. Simple beginnings of culture have been observed in various animals. However, the much advanced human culture became possible by its transmission by language, and by its being cumulative. The concept of cultural change as a progressive process, popular by 18th and 19th centuries thinkers, is nowadays rejected, and the uniqueness of each culture stressed. Although, there are some similarities between biological evolution and cultural change, important differences between these processes are emphasized. The rapid rate of cultural change (especially its technological aspect), as compared to the rate of biological evolution, is noted. In addition, some cultural changes led to new phenomena, which in a time of crisis can be annulled. The possible consequences of the different rate of these two processes for humans as individuals, and for their societies are discussed.
Key words: Biological evolution, cultural change, mechanistic processes, human action.
1. Introduction These ancestors were weak and defenseless creatures, forced to cope with harsh living conditions,
Human beings do not live in a state of nature, but in including the danger of predators in the African culture. Culture affects many human behaviors, even savannah. Their adaptations did not consist in the biological ones, such as eating habits or sex life. development of unique physical attributes such as Unlike Darwinian, or rather, neo-Darwinian evolution, sharp senses or great physical strength, but in the which is based on genetic inheritance, (for example, expansion of their cognitive abilities. There is now Ref. [1]), culture is the product of the transmission of definite paleontological evidence that a major and various traits and properties, not through genes, but by critical step was descending from the trees and means of imitation, learning, indoctrination, or walking erect. This change resulted in the liberation of instruction. This process is known as cultural, the hands, the development of eye-hand coordination psycho-social [2], or socio-cultural evolution [3]. and subsequently, the gradual very large increase in The ability to acquire a culture is based on man’s the size of the brain as well as the elaboration of its advanced cognitive capacities, which in turn are based internal structure [4]. These changes are the basis of on his biological-genetic properties. These enhanced the increase and improvement of mental cognitive capacities which originated among our abilities memory, learning, inventive capacities, evolutionary ancestors were related to their way of life, consciousness and symbolization. In addition, these which developed in response to ecological conditions, ancestors lived in tight-knit social networks, enabled that prevailed in their place of origin, in Africa, by those developed cognitive traits. several million years ago. Consequently, a far-reaching change took place:
Corresponding author: Joseph Neumann, professor, whereas up to this stage biological evolution was a research fields: bioenergetics, Darwinism and human
uniqueness. E-mail: jnoy@post.tau.ac.il. process of passive adaptation to the environment, or
Biology and Culture
by changing somewhat their habitat, man (possessing arise suddenly in their perfect form; they were (and the above mentioned properties) began actively and
are) created in an ongoing and gradual process, and in consciously to change his environment (by various
this sense one can refer to their development as inventions) to suit his needs; one of its consequences
“evolution”.
was the substantial expansion of man’s habitat. Thus, The founders of anthropology characterized cultural in addition to Darwinian evolution mediated by genes,
evolution as a unilinear progressive process. For human being also enjoy an “exogenetic”, or example, the 19th century distinguished “exosomatic” evolutionary change by inheritance of
anthropologists, Lewis Henry Morgan, and Edward acquired characters in the Lamarckian mode 1 .
Tylor, thought that all societies evolve from a less complex to a more complex state; Morgan, “saw
2. What is Culture?
human societies as evolving through various Theorists in different periods and places have
sub-phases of savagery, barbarism, and civilization, assigned different meanings to the term “culture”. To
that were distinguished by specific technological some, “culture” meant that, which distinguished the
innovations” [3].
elite from the “masses”, while for many sociologists According to this school of thought, the difference and anthropologists, “culture” is a complex of several
between the cultures of various societies was the result properties which man acquired at some point in the
of the pace of development. Many anthropologists past, perhaps about 30 thousand yeares ago, and its
believed that the Europeans had reached the pinnacle various aspects, will be enumerated below. In the
of cultural evolution, marked by rationality and a ensuing discussion, “culture” will be used in this latter
developed technology, while the aboriginal societies meaning.
of Australia, for example, remained behind. Such a Edward Burnett Tylor suggested the following
view was sometimes based on the application of the definition of culture in his 1871 book, “Primitive
erroneous theory of orthogenesis in biological Culture”: “that complex whole which includes evolution, namely the idea that organisms have an knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any
inner tendency to evolve in a unilinear fashion other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
towards some inherent goal (for example, in Ref. [7]). member of society” [5]. Knowledge includes explicit
This unilinear view was also based on the belief in verbal knowledge, as well as skills. Thanks to those
progress, which was widespread in the 19th century. activities and especially after the invention of writing
One of its main spokesmen was the English (about 5,500 years ago), large amounts of information
philosopher Herbert Spencer. Spencer developed an were accumulated outside the human body. According
all-embracing, conception of evolution as the to Richerson and Boyd [6], the information acquired
progressive development of the physical world, of can be conscious or unconscious; it includes skills,
biological organisms, of the human mind, and of values, worldviews, artistic tastes, the establishment
human culture and society. As Gellner [3] phrased it, of social and political institutions, and more.
“it turned evolution into a God-surrogate”. One of the The various elements of culture the use of tools,
reasons that led to its dismissal, in the area of cultural the invention of tools, technological innovations,
studies was the fact that cultures do not exist in social organization or symbolic language did not
isolation; contacts and migrations take place between different societies, resulting in reciprocal influences
1 Jean Lamarck, the great French biologist believed in the and “cultural diffusion” [3]. In addition, today it is inheritance of acquired characters, but it was not the
centerpiece of his evolutionary theory, and was certainly not agreed (contrary to the belief in the 18th and 19th original with him.
Biology and Culture
centuries), that no tendency towards increasing relativism. The extreme relativists even claim that socio-cultural complexity is automatically inherent in
people from one culture are unable to understand either the cosmic order or in human nature [3]. Thus,
people from a different culture.
every culture has its own unique history and therefore
3. Primordial Animal Culture and Human
no existing “primitive” culture can represent a
Culture
previous stage of an advanced one. The alternative approach to the unilinear
Like other human traits, which are originated in progressive mode of development focuses on the
earlier species, so too the beginnings of culture are differences between cultures. Each culture preserves
found in some animals. Jenkins [10], who studied bird its traditions (burial customs, religious rites, and other
songs on an island off New Zealand, who discovered ceremonies), worldviews, skills in creating artifacts,
that the young males do not sing the songs of their the mode of organization of social institutions, and
fathers, but rather imitate the songs of their territorial other characteristics. In addition, today most neighbors. Sometimes they even “invent” a new song anthropologists would agree that the differences
by changing, repeating, or omitting a sound, or by between cultures are essential and not trivial rearranging parts of existing songs; Jenkins [10] variations on some universal “human nature”. Thus,
dubbed these changes “cultural mutations” Some cultures cannot be sorted according to a single
cultural phenomena were also observed in other standard as more or less complex or advanced.
animals. In a group of the highly intelligent Japanese Ecological factors and distinct languages among many
macaque, one of the female monkeys was observed other factors contribute to those differences.
dipping sweet potatoes in river water and then in sea Biology is crucial for the study of the origins of
water, before eating them. Her children and other man, his large brain and his developed cognitive
individuals in the group imitated her behavior. A functions; it can indeed explain some universal
similar behavior and its transmission by imitation in phenomena, such as the existence of the sexual
some group of Macaque Monkeys was described by instinct, the maternal bond, parenthood or Chiang [11]. incest-avoidance. And yet, biology is incapable of
In the past, it was believed that a major difference explaining the changes that took place in human
between animals and humans was use of tools. languages, in technological and historical However, in the 1960s, the famous chimpanzee developments and in other aspects of human life, all of
researcher Goodal [12] observed that chimpanzees in which (and many others) created the great diversity of
Tanzania extract insects out of termite hills using tree cultures. The impossibility to explain culture and its
branches. Other researchers described many examples variations by biology only is also due to the fact that
of the use of natural objects by animals. Still, there is man does not have enough genes in order to account
a difference. Unlike human beings, animals do not use for the vast cultural variety; neither does he have
tools in their social relations, whereas humans only enough genes to explain the number of neural
rarely carry out social relations without the usage of connections in his brain that affect behavior.
some products of material culture [13]. More Major trends in anthropological research underplay
important, in animals, cultural inventions are a rarity, the importance of the universal biological and are transmitted only via imitation. infrastructure which is currently studied extensively
In an extensive recent work, it was shown that the by human sociobiology [8], and evolutionary evolution of birds and mammals is affected by social psychology [9], and prefer to emphasize cultural
learning, by the traditions formed by social learning
Biology and Culture
and by inheritance through information something is a symbol only when human beings transmission [14].
conceive of it as a symbol, and use it as such. He also At some point, perhaps about 50,000 years ago (the
pointed out that social phenomena, such as money, precise time is controversial), the transmission of
property, or the institution of marriage, are dependent human culture was accelerated very much by using
on the existence of symbolic language. The use of symbolic language and occasionally through language in addition made it possible to create in the deliberate and conscious instruction. In addition and
society an extensive degree of differentiation—in very importantly, the accomplishments of human
terms of performance and status—due to the long cultures are preserved, and every generation can built
period of training and cooperation among individuals, on, and further develop the achievements of previous
having various skills and knowledge. generations. This cumulative quality of cultural
4. Similarities between Biological and
change resulted in a very wide gap between the
Cultural Evolution
modest beginnings of culture among animals and human culture.
Both processes are incremental and in hindsight Human language (unlike animal communication) is
(although not beforehand) exhibit a trend to based on symbolization (which is used for complexity, since complex systems are constructed on communication and representation), a phenomenon
previous, simpler ones.
unique and of utmost importance for the creation of The theory that focused on the similarities between culture, its transmission and for human life Darwinian evolution and cultural evolution has been generally [15]. Traditions and ideologies are also
subject to intensive debate in recent years, and named encoded symbolically and shared by individuals of
“evolutionary epistemology”. According to this theory, each society.
the change in many different systems: genomes,
A symbol is not an element of reality like mass or individual learning, or the formation of social energy. According to Pierce … a symbol is one kind
structures are the result of the same mechanism: of a sign … (a gesture, sound, object, image etc.) that
“blind variation and selective retention”. This refers to something else. Some signs point to their
approach was introduced and developed extensively referents by association, as smoke indicates fire.
by Donald T. Campbell, who considered it as the “Symbols, however, refer to things by arbitrary
most fundamental principle underlying Darwinian conventions.” [16].
evolution [18].
Chase [16] emphasizes the difference between Cultural evolution, like biological evolution, “symbolic reference” and “symbolic culture”. As
operates as a blind statistical force. Changes that referential phenomena symbols stand for things that
adapted the life of humans to external conditions, or to would exist even in the absence symbolism, like
their way of life were transmitted to subsequent natural phenomena or sensation. However, humans
generations. However, many cultural phenomena are construct a repertoire of “thinks”, that have no
categorically non-adaptive: on the individual level; existence outside of the symbolic context: deities,
drug use can be mentioned, and on the collective level, social roles, values and much more. According to
one can mention the enormous population increase, Chase symbolic culture enables the organization and
the over-exploitation of the planet’s resources or the activity of large social units.
danger of the accumulation of a large nuclear arsenal). The philosopher John Searle [17] also discussed
Another similarity between these two processes is the extensively the nature of symbols. He claimed that
fact that the formation of new biological species is a
Biology and Culture
result of the presence of a reproductive barrier, and in So how should we designate the units of culture? the same vain, different cultures are also formed by
There are those who see them as an extension and isolation, through barriers; however the latter are
expression of the phenotypical strategy of the genes, never absolute. As mentioned above, anthropologists
while others emphasize culture’s uniqueness and and sociologists have discussed at length the autonomy. The philosopher Karl Popper regards phenomenon of “diffusion” of different cultural
culture as the product of the human mind that in a elements, between neighboring cultures [4].
sense is autonomous; he dubbed it “world 3”, (a third Is there a unit of cultural change and cultural
entity, which exists in addition to “world 1” the transmission resembling the role of the gene in
world of physical bodies and physical states, and biological evolution? The English zoologist and writer
“world 2”the world of mental states). Popper [21] also Richard Dawkins [19] coined the term “meme” (from
claimed that there is something analogous to “world the Greek “mimesis”, imitation) which he assumed is,
3” among animals.
analogous to the gene. He defined the meme as a unit
5. Some Significant Differences between
of knowledge of cultural transmission, imitation or
Cultural Evolution and Biological Evolution
reproduction, which is selected due to its influence on its own survivability, and is unique to human beings.
Despite the similarities between biological and Examples of memes are songs, ideas, idioms, fashions,
cultural evolution and change, there are very and more (Dawkins, a militant atheist, sees religious
important differences between these processes. In beliefs as memes!). In Dawkins’s opinion, just as
biological evolution, the information or skills that man genes distribute themselves within the genetic pool by
acquires during his lifetime are not transmitted to the traveling from body to body through sperms and egg
next generation, while in cultural evolution, only cells, so memes distribute themselves in a mimetic
acquired traits are transmitted. Thus, the process is pool by “jumping” from brain to brain via imitation.
sometimes labeled Lamarckian (but sees the footnote This theory has many detractors [20]. There are
on p. 2). Another aspect of this difference is that in those who see it as a flawed atomistic approach to the
biological evolution, the connection between the understanding of culture and cultural transmission.
generations is through the genes, while in cultural Others point to the differences between genes, which
evolution, the transmission of skills or information are based on material units, namely molecules of
occurs by imitation, learning, and the use of language. DNA, as compared to “memes”, whose very material
In contrast to the biological traits whose existence is questionable. In culture, the knowledge
transmission (via genes) from parents to offsprings is that is transmitted from one generation to the next is
an integral part of the process of reproduction, a not transmitted accurately and precisely as a discrete
cultural acquired trait is not necessarily transmitted to unit, that is retained in the brain. In addition, some
the next generation.
important elements of culture have meaning only in Properties transmitted through biological heredity their entirety and any attempt to reduce complex
from parents to offspring are not transmitted as such, entities or ideas such as justice, morality, religion,
but are subject to the complex process of development politics, or science, to one-dimensional units of
and ontogenesis [1]. Culture, on the other hand, can be “memes”, seems futile. The view of seeing culture as
transmitted from generation to generation, as such, an amalgamation of memes ignores, in addition, the
and almost in its entirety.
importance of psychological motives and deliberate Human beings are not affected by the genes of and conscious actions, involved in cultural change.
others, but they are influenced distinctively by
Biology and Culture
neighboring and sometimes distant cultures. physical change [24]. Thus, human action is based on Biological species can become extinct or change
reasoning, while behavior is caused. In addition, in into other species; but they never merge with another
human action there exists sometimes a normative species in nature. In contrast, different cultures do
perspective. Finally, there is the difference between occasionally merge.
individual behavior and collective social behavior. The renowned biologist Richard Lewontin [22]
Under certain conditions, human behavior is routine, discussed an important difference in the way a
due mainly to tradition; when tradition is weakened, population changes from generation to generation, in
change, with far-reaching consequences, may take these two processes. In biological evolution, the
place.
make-up of individuals in a population changes in The most important differences between biological every generation, due to the selection of the fitter 2 evolution and cultural evolution are the pace of the
individuals; in cultural evolution, on the other hand, two processes and the issue of reversibility. The rate the individuals of a certain population, which are
of biological evolution is very slow. The transmission exposed to changing conditions, change of a new trait is “vertical” and uni-directional, from simultaneously.
parents to children; the spread of a “useful” mutational
An important difference between these two changes takes place through the increase in the processes is that biological evolution is driven by a
relative rate of reproduction of individuals who carry mechanistic processes, whereas cultural change this mutation and transmit it. Thus, the minimum time sometimes occurs due to deliberate action of persons
for its transmission is one generation. In cultural (as mentioned before and will be discussed later), that
evolution, on the other hand, the transmission can be can be premeditated.
“vertical” and bi-directional (from parents to children One cannot attribute cultural change and human
and from children to parents); it can also be history to biology alone. Humans create their own
“horizontal” (from one individual to another in the history, or as the archeologist Gordon Childe [23]
population). New discoveries by certain individuals wrote: “Man makes himself”.
(sometimes even by a single individual) can quickly With regard to human nature, there is the age-old
spread to the entire society and even across the world. debate over the question of “nature vs. nurture”, or the
At its onset, culture was transmitted solely by way relative importance of genes vs. environment. The
of imitation, but with the development of language, latter includes many factors—traditions, customs,
new cultural innovations were transmitted with social institutions, religion as well as factors that
increasing speed. This transmission greatly shape human activity, including purposive action.
accelerated over the centuries with the appearance of In humans, an important distinction should be made
writing, later with the advent of print, and in the last between behavior and action. Behavior per se may be
decades with the invention of the computer and the caused by physiological and other biological internet. Thus, the pace of cultural evolution is processes. Action, on the other hand, is a deliberate
immeasurably faster than that of biological evolution; and willful conscious behavior by an agent; it has a
knowledge and information continues to accumulate mental component (such as a belief or a fear) and a
in periodicals, books and other media as exogenetic physical component. The mental component causes
and extra-bodily information.
the physical component, which in turn causes the For a long time, cultural change took place in parallel and in conjunction with biological evolution;
Fitness may be defined as effective design for reproductive both the tools and the maker of the tools evolved. survival.
Biology and Culture
Over the course of hundreds of thousands of years, course of hundreds of thousands of years and the biological evolution and cultural change went hand in
present environment. This gap is a major cause of hand. Both culture and its bearers developed gradually.
human suffering, and it can even lead to the Culture became an important selective factor for
destruction of the human race, whether due to biological evolution, and vice versa, through the
population explosion, the unrestrained exploitation of processes of positive feedback. As an example, to the
natural resources and climate change, or the use of extent that an individuals adaptation has been nuclear weapons, as mentioned before. Moreover, the improved (as a result of a single or several mutations)
gap between our biological traits and the modern in any kind of skill like a sophisticated use of a tool,
environment, we live in, explains (by some thinkers) the invention of a tool, or a personality trait such as
the existence of an internal conflict between our basic heightened intelligence the mechanism of natural
(animalistic?) nature and the civilized and rational part selection would select it, just as it selects any physical
of our being. This was Freud’s view, pointing to an or behavioral trait. An increase of cognitive capacities,
ongoing struggle that characterizes the tragic view of on the other hand, would of course also improve the
human existence. Certain thinkers have tried to adaptation.
substantiate this worldview by the existence of a However, perhaps a few tens of thousands years
multilayered structure of the brain and the mind. ago, cultural change became an autonomous process
There is some anatomic evidence that the human brain that gathered momentum, heedless of the factors that
evolved in three steps containing three layers: the enabled its existence, and took a life of its own, much
reptile brain, the paleomammalian and the like Frankenstein’s monster! The process of cultural
neo-mammalian, without these parts undergoing full change is autocatalytic; man after discovering the use
integration, and that in some circumstances, the tools, made tools and later produced tools for making
different parts act autonomously, affecting man’s tools. It took only three decades from the building of
behavior. This is Paul MacLean’s [27] opinion as the first airplane to the development of the most
explicated in his book, “The Triune Brain in sophisticated plane, while the development of the
Evolution”.
flight mechanism of birds took thirty million years! Another very significant difference between the two Humankind’s biological evolution did not stop
processes are the fact that biological evolution is completely, but its rate of change became almost
irreversible whereas exogenetic evolution is reversible. negligible in comparison with the rate of cultural
The irreversibility of biological evolution can be changes; this is the accepted opinion. “Homo sapiens
explained by statistic consideration; every major arose at about 30,000 years ago, and we have not a
biological trait is the result of sequential selections of shred of evidence for any genetic improvement since
many “useful” mutations, during many generations. A then”[25]; recently, anthropologists Cochram and
single mutation can be reversible, but the chance that a Harpending [26] published a book trying to debunk it,
sequence of thousands mutations will be reversible is by claiming that the human species has undergone a 3 practically zero . Cultures on the other hand can
great genetic change much more recently. decline from a state of prosperity to complete Sociobiologists [8] and evolutionary psychologists
destruction within a rather short period. A chilling [9] claim that, due to the different pace of the two
example is Nazism. In the 12 years of his rule, Hitler processes, a large gap was formed between traits
and his henchmen, in addition to initiating a genocidal which were adaptations to the environmental
conditions of our evolutionary ancestors, over the 3 A mammal like the dolphin, that “returned” to water, did not
turn into a fish.
Biology and Culture
war, abolished the legal system and the administrative social norms, legal systems property relations and institutions of their modern state.
other aspects. Some of the above are influenced by
The cultural environment designed major myths, religion, beliefs, and ideologies. It should be behavioral and cognitive traits in human beings, traits
pointed out that societal life has an objective existence that can be actualized only in such an environment.
independent of the single person who is facing it. One Therefore, human being’s normal development (in
of the characteristics of social change through the ages particular in infancy and childhood) is dependent on
was an increase size, complexity, and differentiation, the existence of a supportive culture. We can learn a
which was, among other causes, the product of great variety of things, but in order to survive we must
technological progress.
learn many different behaviors and relationships. Thus, Culture establishes ethnic categories that can lead to in order for a child to acquire language, he must spend
racist ideologies. The ethnic unit may be based on a the critical part of his childhood in the company of his
common language, culture, or religion. Race is a mother and/or other caretakers and speakers. Over the
culturally constructed human grouping that can be course of cultural evolution, we lost a significant part
based on physical attributes (such as skin color) or a of our instinctive behaviors, and we are now
shared biological origin, whose roots are sometimes completely dependent on culture in order to survive; if
mythological (espousal of this kind of worldview was one were to raise a child in a complete cultural
used to establish and consolidate the Nazi ideology). vacuum, the result would not be a return to a
The pace of social change is slow in comparison to “pre-cultural” man, but rather the creation of a
technological change. For hundreds of thousands of debilitated and distorted creature, unfit to survive.
years, our evolutionary ancestors lived in nomadic Related to the ongoing debate in cultural studies of
bands of 50 to 100 hunter-gatherers, as an extended the existence of universal “human nature” versus the
family group [29]. The size of the group was a uniqueness of each culture, is the question of the
function of the limited resources at its disposal. Social degree of flexibility of human behavior. Indeed,
relations within the group were based on family ties flexible behavior in humans did develop, apparently
(“blood ties”) and mutual acquaintance. Interactions among our evolutionary forefathers, as an adaptation
and barter was done face to face. Encounters between to the extreme climactic changes that took place in the
unfamiliar groups were rare, and apparently entailed Pleistocene 4 [28]. Behavioral flexibility also explains
violent, though not necessarily deadly, conflicts. the fact that human beings can adapt fairly quickly
Around 10,000 years ago, humans started to when transferred from primitive living conditions of
domesticate plants and animals during the so-called indigenous societies to an advanced technological
agricultural revolution [30], which took place in society, sometimes within a single generation.
various places, probably independently. The It is common to divide cultural evolution into the
agricultural revolution had far-reaching repercussions. social and the technological, despite the fact that there
The most important of these was the replacement of is some interaction between these two processes.
the nomadic lifestyle with a sedentary one, the creation of surplus, and the accumulation of food and
6. Social Evolution
property. The presence of surplus heightened greed, The social component of culture includes the
led to social stratification, and increased the frequency organization of society, the type of regimes and
of conflicts within a society, based on a power institutions, economic systems, family structure, hierarchy. Trade, which in the past had been based on family ties and reciprocity, was formalized in the
The era between 120.000 and 2.5 million years ago.
Biology and Culture
framework of fixed rules of behavior. Individuals Every society is characterized by an ideology were assigned to different categories, and behavior
beliefs, ideas, values, principles, and worldviews. patterns. Simultaneously, the tendency to create
There were thinkers who tried to define the stereotypes increased, thus allowing one to distinguish
uniqueness of societies based on ethnic groups, between “friends” and “foes”.
tradition, and mythological roots. When patterns of About 5,000 years ago, with the invention of
behavior and ideology stabilize, they become writing, the era of history started [31]. Approximately
embodied in institutions. Modern institutions are at the same time a process of urbanization began. In
characterized by bureaucratization the organization this process, relatively large settlements were founded,
and control of large groups through rules and which were based on intensive agriculture and on the
procedures. The German sociologist Max Weber [34] consolidation of groups of experts and artisans, who
described the many changes involved in the formation were concentrated in cities. The cities themselves
of society as a bureaucratic system. became interconnected by commerce and formal
7. Technological Evolution
exchange relations. Social differentiation and the acquisition of expertise in craft, trade, and
Early technological inventions were the result of administration—developed gradually and created trial and error. The initial tools that man created were distinct social classes.
perfected slowly and gradually. It should be noted that The modern period saw a change of immense
the tool serves not only as an instrument by which significance: the industrial revolution [32], which was
man adapts to its environment, but also a means for characterized by population growth, migration from
creating a human environment that serves human rural areas, and the creation of metropolises. These
needs and embodies human values [13]. phenomena created a plethora of problems, among
The advent of agriculture (the domestication of them exploitation, hunger, and plagues. Under these
plants and animals), the invention of clothing, the conditions, man lives an anonymous life in the
transition to permanent dwellings, the invention of fire, metropolis. One of the associated phenomena of these
and the melting of iron and other metals, are examples conditions is the formation of a “mob”, a large number
of technological evolution. Later were discovered the of people who could be easily exploited, and under
steam engine, the internal combustion engine, the certain circumstances, became a fertile ground for the
airplane, the computer.
rise of dictators. For hundreds of thousands of years, the power and In the modern city, people frequently change their
energy at man’s disposal were only his muscles. With friends, their place of work, and their place of living.
the domestication of animals, man harnessed the These conditions led to alienation and power of the ox, the bull, the camel, the horse, and the over-stimulation; the latter created great social stress.
llama. Later, he began using simple machines the The extreme division of labor alienates man from the
lever, the inclined plane, and the wheel. Subsequently, products of his labor. When the city grew beyond a
man harnessed wind and water energy for his needs; certain size, a transition took place from life in a
in the 18th century, the steam engine was invented, in community (Gemeinschaft), in which human relations
the 19th century the use of electricity became and a feeling of solidarity exist, to society praactical and a few decades ago, nuclear energy was (Geselschaft) characterized by relations based on
harneced for man’s use [2].
interests. These terms were coined by the German The discovery of different kinds of weapons, which sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies [33].
greatly increased man’s destructive power, had a great
Biology and Culture
influence on human history from the bow and arrow, through the generations was based on symbolic through the invention of gun powder, up to the
language, in the “Lamarckian” mode, as contrasted invention of the atomic bomb. The scientific with the very slow genetic change of Darwinian revolution in the renaissance speeded up very much
evolution. In consequence, a large gap was formed the technological change.
between our biological traits, due to biological Change and development in social organization
adaptations, formed during hundreds of thousands occurred at a much slower pace than the above
years of evolution and the cultural environment of mentioned technological changes. Although the modern man, and modern society. Cultural change, process was marked by an increase in complexity and
unlike biological evolution, is reversible, sometimes size, there is a real doubt whether we should see these
to man’s great peril.
changes as “progress”. By any measure, the dictatorial
Acknowledgments
regimes of the 20th century cannot be seen as progress in relation to Athenian democracy! From a functional
The author would like to thank Professor Haim point of view, one can view technological change as
Hazan, from the Department of Sociology and progress, although we should not ignore the dangers
Anthropology, Tel-Aviv University, for his and threats that accompany much technological
encouragement, and for suggesting some new advancement, but certainly it is not necessarily
perspective, and to Professor Bernard (Baruch) Epel, accompanied by moral improvement. In addition,
from the Department of Molecular Biology and technological advance has produced much individual
Ecology of Plants, whose generous help improved the suffering and resulted in the oppression of many
manuscript considerably.
peoples by their advanced neighbors. It should be mentioned (although it is not discussed
References
in the present paper) that among current [1] E. Mayr, What Evolution Is?, Basic Books, A Member of anthropologists some prominent thinkers oppose
the Perseus Books Group, New York, USA, 2002. seeing social change as “evolution” in any sense. Thus,
[2] T.G. Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of Barrett [35], for example, regards cultural change as the Human Species, Yale University Press, New Haven
and London, 1962.
an expression of social power dynamics, unrelated to [3] B.C. Trigger, Sociocultural Evolution, New Perspective
any evolutionary paradigm. on the Past, Blackwell Publisher Inc., Malden, Mass, USA, 1998.
8. Conclusion
[4] G. Richards, Human Evolution, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
A major aspect of man’s uniqueness, both as an
London and New York, 1987. [5] E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, Researches into the
individual and concerning the nature of his society, is Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Language, Art
the fact that he lives in complex cultures, which and Custom, 7th ed., Brentano’s, NY, USA, 1924. include traditions, customs, norms, technological
[6] P.J. Richerson, R. Boyd, Not by Genes Alone, How innovations and that he lives within symbolic
Culture Transformed Human Evolution, The University networks. Man’s cultures developed as a result of a of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, 2005. [7] P.J. Bowler, Evolution, the History of an Idea, 3rd ed.,
vast expansion of his cognitive capacities, and (at University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA, some stage) his ability to act purposefully and
consciously, changing his environment actively. [8] E.O. Wilson, On Human Nature, Harvard University Cultures, and especially their technological aspect, Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1978.
[9] J. Tooby, L. Cosmides, The psychological foundations of developed at a much greater pace, compared to the
culture, in: J.H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, J. Tooby (Eds.), rate of biological evolution, since its transmission
The Adapted Mind. Evolutionary Psychology and the
332
Biology and Culture
Generation of Culture, Oxford University Press, NY, [23] V.G. Chllde, Man Makes Himself, New American USA, 1992, p. 19-136.
Library, NY, USA, 1983.
[10] P.F. Jenkins, Cultural transmission of song patterns, and [24] J.R. Searle, Minds, Brains and Science, Harvard dialect development in a free-living population, Animal
University Press, USA, 1984.
Behaviour 26 (1978) 50-78. [25] S.J. Gould, The Panda’s Thumb, More Reflections in [11] M. Chiang, Use of tools by wild macaques monkeys in
Natural History, W.W. Norton and Company, NY USA, singapo, Nature 214 (1967) 1258-1259.
1980.
[12] J. Goodall, My Life with the Chimpanzees, Revised ed., [26] G. Cochram, H. Harpending, The 10.000 Explosion, How Simon and Shuster, United States, 1988.
Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution, Basic Books, [13] E. Avital, E. Jablonka, Animal Traditions Behavioral
New York, USA, 2009.
Inheritance in Evolution, Cambridge University Press, [27] P.D. MacLean, The Triune Brain in Evolution: Role of Cambridge, UK, 2000.
Paleocerebral Function, Plenum Press, NY, USA, 1990. [14] C. Gosden, Prehistory: A Very Short Introduction,
[28] P.J. Richerson, R. Boyd, Build for speed: Pleistocene Oxford University Press, New York, USA, 2003.
climate variation and the origin of human culture, [15] J.P. Hewitt, Self and Society, 4th ed., Allyn and Bacon,
(perspective in ethology), in: F. Tonneau, N.S. Thompson Inc, Boston, 1984.
(Eds.), Evolution, Culture, and Behaviour, Kluver, [16] P.G. Chase, Symbolism as reference and symbolism as
Academic Plenum, New York, USA, 2000, pp. 1-45. culture, in: R. Dunbar, C. Knight, C. Power (Eds.), The
[29] I. Devore, R.B. Lee, Man the Hunter, Aldine Pub., Yale Evolution of Culture, an Interdisciplinary View, Rutgers
University Press, Chicago, U.S.A., 1968. University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1999.
[30] D. Rindos, The Origins of Agriculture, An Evolutionary [17] J.R. Searle, The Construction of Social Reality, Simon &
Approach, Academic Press, London, UK, 1984. Shuster, USA, 1995.
[31] G.L. Stebbins, Darwin to DNA, Molecules to Humanity, [18] D.T. Campbell, Variation and selective retention in
(Chapter 14), W.H. Freeman, San Francisko, California, socio-cultural evolution, in: H.R. Barringer, G.I.
USA, 1982.
Blankestem, R.W. Mack (Eds.), Social Change in [32] J.B. Harrison, R.E. Sullivan, A Short History of Western Developing Areas, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1965, pp.
Civilization, Sections X, XI, 2nd ed., New York, 19-49.
McGraw – Hill, New York, USA, 1966. [19] R. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press,
[33] F. Tönnies, Community and Society: Gemmeinschaft and London, 1976.
Gesselschaft, Translated and Edited by. C.P. Loomis, [20] R. Auger, Darwinizing Culture: The Status of Memetics
East Lansing, Michigan University Press, USA, 1957. as a Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000.
[34] D.G. MacRae, Weber (Fontanta Modern Masters), F. [21] K.R. Popper, Knowledge and body-mind problem, in:
Kermode (Ed.), Fontana/Collins, Glasgow, Great Britain, Defence of Interaction, Routledge, London, UK, 1994.
1974.
[22] R.C. Lewontin, The organism as the subject and object of [35] S. Barrett, The Rebirth of Anthropological Theory, evolution, Scientia 11 (1983) 65-82.
University of Toronto Press, Canada, 1984.