Myth Review of Related Literature

13 Müller supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed that myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature, but gradually came to be interpreted literally: for example, a poetic description of the sea as raging was eventually taken literally, and the sea was then thought of as a raging god. Bishop, P. 2003: 96 Some thinkers believe that myths resulted from the personification of inanimate objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshipped natural phenomena such as fire and air, gradually coming to describe them as gods. For example, according to the theory of mythopoeic thought, the ancients tended to view things as persons, not as mere objects; thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, thus giving rise to myths. Bishop, P, 2003: 97 According to the myth-ritual theory, the existence of myth is tied to ritual. In its most extreme form, this theory claims that myths arose to explain rituals. This claim was first put forward by the biblical scholar William Robertson Smith. According to Smith, people begin performing rituals for some reason that is not related to myth; later, after they have forgotten the original reason for a ritual, they try to account for the ritual by inventing a myth and claiming that the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth. Bishop, P. 2003: 97 2.2.3.2. Nature of Myth The main characters in myths are usually gods or supernatural heroes. As sacred stories, myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and closely linked to religion. In the society in which it is told, a myth is usually regarded as a true 14 account of the remote past. In fact, many societies have two categories of traditional narrative true stories, or myths, and false stories, or fables. Myths generally take place in a primordial age, when the world had not yet achieved its current form. They explain how the world gained its current form and how customs, institutions, and taboos were established. George, W. 1887: 82 Closely related to myth are legend and folktale. Myths, legends, and folktales are different types of traditional story. Unlike myths, folktales can take place at any time and any place, and they are not considered true or sacred events by the societies that tell them. Like myths, legends are stories that are traditionally considered true; however, they are set in a more recent time, when the world was much as it is today. Also, legends generally feature humans as their main characters, whereas myths generally focus on superhuman characters. George, W. 1887: 82 The distinction between myth, legend, and folktale is meant simply as a useful tool for grouping traditional stories. In many cultures, it is hard to draw a sharp line between myths and legends. Instead of dividing their traditional stories into myths, legends, and folktales, some cultures divide them into two categories, one that roughly corresponds to folktales, and one that combines myths and legends. Even myths and folktales are not completely distinct: a story may be considered true and therefore a myth, in one society, but considered fictional, and therefore a folktale in another society. In fact, when a myth loses its status as part of a religious system, it often takes on traits more typical of folktales, with its 15 formerly divine characters reinterpreted as human heroes, giants, or fairies. George, W. 1887: 83 Myth, legend, and folktale are only a few of the categories of traditional stories. Other categories include anecdotes and some kinds of jokes. Traditional stories, in turn, are only one category within folklore, which also includes items such as gestures, costumes, and music. Howard, J. 1955: 14.

2.2.4. Norwegian Myth

England, historically, has been colonialized by many countries, like France, Germany and Rome. That colonial history has made England having so many cultures because each colonizer brought cultural influences to England. For example, Rome brought a significant influence in the history of literature development through latin inscription and architecture which can be seen in the British parliament building. Beside Roman that brought literacy influences, Germany also had role in the literacy development in English for example the influence towards English which is known as Englisc. In addition, from language point of view, it was not only Germany that influenced English but also France. In the middle era, France colonialized England. As its influence, Norman from France spread French among the British government Sunarwoto, 2013:15 The history of British domination by other nations has influenced British .It happened when England was colonialized by Viking from Norway. Viking was brave, adaptable, and having adventurous spirits, and was also noble which influenced the character of British society. The character of loving for 16 exploration and discovery owned by the Anglo-Saxon is an example of Viking influences on the colonialized England Sunarwoto,2013:13. Besides that character, Viking also brought Norwegian mythmythology as a part of their life in England while colonializing England. That myth influences the British culture. Since my topic is about the Norwegian myth in the ring symbol used in the novel The Lord of The Ring: The Fellowship of The Ring, it is necessary to specifically explain the Norwegian myth. In European mythology, there are some myths which form the core of European mythological thought. They are the Greek, Celtic, and Norwegian myths. Stories related to Greek, Celtic and Germanic myths touch upon the fundamental issues of existence. They reveal the power of love, with its accompanying anxiety and jealousy; the conflicts between generations, the old and the new; the violence of men, especially on a battlefield or in a single combat; the mischief of the trouble-maker, bored by the steady pace of everyday events; the sadness of illness or accidental injury; the mystery of death, with a variety of after-life possibilities including rebirth; the effect of enchantment upon the mind and body; the challenge of the unknown, whether a voyage into uncharted waters or a quest for a sacred object; the personal danger of a contest with a monster, even a beheading game; the sadness of betrayal and treachery, not least within a family or a group of colleagues; the cycle of fertility in human beings and animals, plus the growth of plants; the horror of madness with its disruption of human relations; the incidence of misfortune and luck, plus the whole issue of fate; the relation between human and divine, between mankind and the gods; the 17 creation of the world and the origins of society; and, last but not least, the nature of the universe. In the Norwegian myth, however, it is the pride of the gods or their opponents, the frost giants, which causes disasters to occur. Unlike the Greeks and the Celts, the German peoples of the northern Europe did not develop a heroic tradition of any significance. The great hero was Thor, the slow-witted but honest champion of the gods. He delighted the tough Northmen, who appreciated how his allergy to frost giants naturally led to skull-smashing encounters in the fields and halls. Yet those who undertook raids as Vikings had a more suitable patron in Odin, the one-eyed god of battle and the inspirer of the dreaded berserkers. Usually myths reveal an interwoven pattern of circumstances outside the control of both mortals and gods. Fate and destiny in European mythology are almost beyond manipulation. Attempts may be made to slow down the operation of fate‟s decrees, sometimes to thwart them entirely, but they never work. Odin can do nothing about his future death at Ragnarok, the doom of the gods. The abiding interest of mythology, European or otherwise, is its frankness about such basic human drives. It could almost be described as sacred literature undisturbed by theologians. The raw and ragged ends of existence are still visible in its tales of both men and gods Cotterrel, A. 1996:236.

2.2.5. Symbol of Ring in Norwegian Myth