that Jack is compared with a snake where some
characteristics of snake are seen to exist in Jack.
To exemplify, some features or characteristics of
a snake are +having scales, +crawling,
+coiling its body, +having fangs, +being
poisonous and having fangs. Of all these
features some are mapped on to Jack. In other
words, some characteristics of the snake apply
to Jack; for example Jack has the characteristics
of +coiling other people by using his words
and +being poisonous in his words or
expressions. Other characteristics of ‐having
scales, ‐crawling and ‐having fangs are not
applicable to Jack. The metaphorical clause of
Jack is a snake implies that Jack is like a snake,
not to be trusted and subtly cheating people
coiling or rounding people and hurting others
by his poisonous words.
Lexical metaphor potentially occurs in
comparison in which nouns and nouns, nouns
and verbs, nouns and adjectives, nouns and
adverbs are compared. In addition, lexical
metaphor may occur in the context of ideology.
Lexical metaphor is realized by a noun in
comparison with another. In the clause we have
identified the root of the matter; the matter being a
noun is compared with the root another noun.
The root is deep under ground as the basis of a
tree. Thus, the root of the matter implies ‘the basis
or cause of the matter’. In other words, the root
of the matter means the fundamental cause of
the matter. Some other examples of lexical
metaphors are the foot of the mountain, island of
hope, door of heart, sea of life, guard of revolution,
and taste for music.
Metaphorical representations may occur
where a noun is compared with a verb. In the
clause they sailed to their expectation, their
expectation is compared with sailed. It appears as
if their expectation was the sea and they sailed
through the sea. Other examples of metaphor
with verbs compared with nouns are open your
heart, smiling city, filling one’s life, escalating
achievement, and rocketing prices.
Lexical metaphor also forms with nouns
compared with adjectives. In the clause he has
got a bright future, the future is compared with
the brightness of the sun. Here, the future being
noun is compared with bright being adjective.
Other examples of metaphoric representations
are the man is still green being inexperienced,
green revolution, golden age and dark life.
Lexical metaphor may also form in
ideological contexts in which a meaning or
concept is one community is analogously
applied in another culture. The president of the
US R. Nixon was once alleged for a scandal of
corruption known as Watergate scandal. The
other president Bill Clinton was also alleged
for the scandal of Freshwatergate. Since then the
morpheme gate was used for any corruption
scandal. This was later applied in Indonesia
where President Abdurahman Wahid was
accused of Buloggate, Bruneigate and Golkargate
in which gate is used to mark corruption
scandal.
3. GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR
Grammatical metaphor is defined as
relocation or shift of wording the meaning from
its usual representation to another unusual
realization. In this sense, analogously to lexical
metaphor which is an unusual coding of
meaning, grammatical metaphor indicates an
incongruent wording of meaning. This is to say
that inherently there are two kinds of wording,
namely congruent and incongruent or
metaphorical one.
A congruent coding or wording indicates
that reality is coded in its usual or common
realizations. In other words, congruent
representation is the common way of realizing
semantics in grammar; specifically usual ways of
expressing meaning in lexicogrammatical
aspects. This is also called literal meaning. For
example, lexico‐grammatically a thing is
congruently coded by noun and activity or
event by verb. In the clause of the man arrived
late ,
the group the man is a thing and is coded in a
noun and arrived is an event, which is coded in
a verb. In Table 1, based on Martin 1993b: 218,
congruent coding of meaning is summarized.
Incongruent or metaphorical coding does
not follow the congruent representation. In other
words, metaphorical coding or grammatical
metaphor indicates uncommon coding in which
commonality of coding as summarized in Table
1 is violated. The expression of the man’s late
arrival in the man’s late arrival surprises us is a
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metaphorical wording since the congruent
function of arrive as an event is now recoded in
noun. This indicates that grammatical metaphor
indicates relocation or shift of meaning
expression from the normal to unusual one.
When a text is not congruent in its
realization or the literal realization is violated,
grammatical metaphor forms. In he succeeded in
the job the wording is congruent since it follows
the principle as summarized in Table 1.
However, in his success in the job results in a
strong criticism the nominal group his success is a
metaphorical wording. The range of
grammatical metaphor is summarized in Table 2
in which the sign means ‘realized by’.
Table 1: Congruent Wordings of Meaning
Meaning Realized
by Lexicogrammar
Wording Examples
thing Participantnoun
The book was sold.
activity Processverb
We ran.
quality Attributeadjective
The house is old.
location, time,
manner Circumstanceadverb
He wrote the letter neatly.
The man is in the room.
relation conjunction
She was absent because she was ill.
position preposition
The post office is near the bank.
judgment, opinion,
comment modality
She may arrive early.
I must go now.
I will write a report.
Table 2: Metaphorical Coding
No. Class Metaphor
Function Metaphor
Examples
1 adjective
→ noun quality
→ thing unstable
→ instability probable
→ probability 2a
verb → noun
process → thing
transform → transformation
succeed → success
2b tensephase
verb adverb → noun
aspect of process →
thing going
totry → prospectattempt have
completed → solution 2c
modality verb adverb
→ noun modality
of process → thing
can, could → possibility, potential
is required to go → duty
2d verb
+ adverbprep. phr. → noun
process +circumstance
→ thing
move in circle →revolution;
behave badly → misconduct
3 preposition
→ noun minor
process → thing
with → accompaniment
so → effect
4 conjunction
→ verb relator
→ thing so
→ cause; proof if
→ condition
Metaphorical Representations and Scientific Texts Amrin Saragih
3
No. Class Metaphor
Function Metaphor
Examples
5a noun
head → noun premodifier
thing → class of
things engine
[fails] → engine [failure] 5b
noun head → prep.
phrase postmodifier
thing → possessor
glass [fractures] → [the fracture] of
glass village
[develop] [the development] of
village 5c
noun head → possessive
determiner thing
→ possessor of
thing government
[decided] → government’s
[decision] 6a
verb → adjective
process → quality
[poverty] is increasing → increasing
[poverty] 6b
tensephase verb
adverb → adjective
aspect of process →
quality was
absent → being absent begin
→ initial 6c
modality verb
→ adverb
→ adjective modality
of process → quality
always, will → constant
7a adverb
→ adjective manner
circumstance → quality
[acted] brilliantly → brilliant
[acting] 7b
prepositional phrase →
adjective circumstance
→ quality
[argued] for a long time → lengthy
[argument] [describe]
in details →detailed [description]
7c prepositional
phrase → noun
premodifier circumstance
→ class of
thing [cracks]
on the surface → surface [cracks]
[tea] in the morning → morning [tea]
8 conjunction
→ adjective relator → quality before
→ previous and
→additional 9
bego + preposition →
verb circumstance
→ process
be about → concern
be instead of → replace
10 conjunction
→ verb relator
→ process and
→ complement; then → follow; so
→ lead to 11
conjunction →
prepositional phrase
relator →
circumstance so
→ as a result therefore
→ as a consequence 12a
Φ → verb [in env. 1—4] Φ → process [impact]
→ have [an impact] [press]
→ apply [pressure] 12b
causative vrb → verb [in env.
1—4] agency
→ process make
[conform] → impose [conformity
on] let
[release] → allow [departure] 13
Φ → noun [in env. Φ → thing
[her success] → the fact of [her
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Metaphorical Representations and Scientific Texts Amrin Saragih
5
No. Class Metaphor
Function Metaphor
Examples
Projection] success]
[my apology] → the act of [my
apology] The
change or shift of coding from the congruent
to metaphorical representation causes a
tension between semantics and grammar. For example,
in 1a the clause complex of Ali was absent
because he was ill is a normal or congruent coding
in which, as stated in Table 1, relation of ‘cause—effect’
is coded by conjunction because. In
addition, quality is coded by adjectives of absent
and ill. However, in 1b, c, d, e there is a shift
in which relation is recoded in verb and quality
is recoded in nouns. The quality or attribute
absent and ill are metaphorically recoded
as being absent and being ill in 1b. The text
in 1b sounds unnatural; however, texts in 1,
c, d, e are much more natural in which absence
and illness are used. 1
a. Ali is absent because he was ill.
b. Ali’s being absent was caused by his
being ill.
c. Ali’s absence is caused by his illness.
d. Ali’s absence was due to his illness.
e. Ali’s absence was a consequence of his
illness.
4. RANKSHIFT
