NTERNATIONAL R EVIEW OF I NDUSTRIAL AND O RGANIZATIONAL P SYCHOLOGY 2005 advanced our understanding of the neural substrates underlying the per-

232 I NTERNATIONAL R EVIEW OF I NDUSTRIAL AND O RGANIZATIONAL P SYCHOLOGY 2005 advanced our understanding of the neural substrates underlying the per-

ception of emotional stimuli (Lane, Chua, & Dolan, 1999), of pleasant vs. unpleasant emotions (Lane et al., 1997), of approach and withdrawal-related emotions (Davidson, 2000), of the valence and intensity of emotions (Schmidt & Trainor, 2001), and of mood regulation (Davidson et al., 2002).

These functions have been related in particular to the following neuro- logical mechanisms: the perception of emotional stimuli, or affective events is associated with activation of the amygdala and basal ganglia (LeDoux, 1996); the differential experience of pleasant and unpleasant affect is correlated with cerebral blood flow in the medial prefrontal cortex (Brodman’s ‘Area 9’), thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain (Lane et al., 1997); the arousal of approach and withdrawal-related emotions is associated with anterior asymmetries in hemispheric activation (Davidson, 2000); frontal lobe elec- trical activity distinguishes the valence and intensity of emotions (Schmidt & Trainor, 2001), and the orbitofrontal cortex and ventromedial cortex are implicated in the regulation of moods and emotions (Beauregard, Levesque, & Bourgouin, 2001; Davidson et al., 2002; Rolls, 1999). Each of these areas of research highlights the important role of the neurological structures in the mediation of cognitive and behavioral functioning in response to emotions. Within the confines of this chapter, however, we will limit our review of the role of neural mechanisms in the mediation of the impact of emotions in organizations to those associated with the perception of affective workplace events, and the management or regulation of emotional experiences and expressions in the workplace.

Emotion perception The perception of emotional stimuli or affective events in the workplace

activates the amygdala and basal ganglia. The human amygdalae are best characterized as pre-attentive analyzers of the environment that look for significant information that should be responded to with behavioral changes (Hollan& Gallagher, 1999; LeDoux, 1996; Whalen, 1998). For both positive and negative stimuli, the amygdala functions to determine whether incoming stimuli are threatening and, if so, to rapidly associate the perception of those stimuli with the appropriate physiological responses (bodily changes that prepare the individual for adaptive responding) (Ochsner & Feldman Barrett, 2000). Situations that elicit positive and negative affect require very different kinds of responses. On the one hand, upon the perception of threatening stimuli, the amygdala automatically encodes the perceptual features of the stimuli in memory for future adaptational encounters, and activates bodily changes for immediate responding to perceived threats. When positive stim- uli are perceived, onthe other hand, they are processed by the basal ganglia.

The basal ganglia are designed slowly to encode sequences of behavior that, over time, have been repeated and rewarded, or at least not punished

233 (Lieberman, 2000). As noted by Ochsner and Feldman Barrett (2000), ‘it

E MOTION IN O RGANIZATIONS

makes sense to stamp in behaviors and thoughts that have led to a desirable outcome only if they continue to do so reliably’ (p. 40). Similarly, the old aphorism ‘fool me once, shame onyou, fool me twice, shame onme’, suggests that it is a survival imperative for anorganism to be sure that rewards result neither from chance nor from deception. The affective representations that are encoded by the basal ganglia thus support not only the execution of habitual behaviors, but also the prediction of what comes next in a sequence of thoughts or actions (LeDoux, Romanski, & Xagoraris, 1989). These implicit skills are essential because they allow us to make automatic the sequences of thought and action that lead to adaptive success.

Brain lesion studies demonstrate that damage to the amygdala and basal ganglia impairs people’s ability to perceive and integrate emotional cues, and consequently to experience and to express appropriate emotions in response to positive or negative environmental stimuli (LaBar, Gatenby, Gore, LeDoux, & Phelps, 1998). Neuropsychological studies have showninpar- ticular that amygdala lesions block behavioral conditioning processes whereby environmental stimuli are associated with aversive outcomes for personal well-being (LaBar, LeDoux, Spencer, & Phelps, 1995). Behavioral learning is critical to adaptive success because it is the means by which individuals can perceive and respond to environmental demands implicitly, without taxing valuable attentional resources. The amygdalae thus can also

be seen to play important roles in the manifestation of emotional intelligence (see Goleman, 1995). Lesions to the caudate region of the basal ganglia, either as a result of stroke or degenerative disease (e.g., Huntington’s chorea) impair the percep- tion of emotion conveyed through facial expression and tone of voice (Cohen, Riccio, & Flannery, 1994; Speedie, Wertman, Ta’ir, & Heilman, 1993). In addition, damage to the putamen section of the basal ganglia impairs the production of nonverbal expressions of emotion, including emotional intonation and the production of voluntary facial expressions (Van Lancker & Pachana, 1995). Importantly, basal ganglia activation is associated with the experience of positive emotions in response to positive environmental stimuli (McPherson & Cummings, 1996). As such, degeneration of the basal ganglia is associated with depression and a lack of motivation to adapt to environ- mental demands (Breiter & Rosen, 1999). The ability to perceive and to integrate positive emotional stimuli is thus mediated by the basal ganglia and has important implications for adaptive social functioning in the workplace.

In summary, the amygdala and basal ganglia are the main neurological structures that function for the perception of affective environmental stimuli. The amygdalae determine whether incoming stimuli are threatening and, if so, rapidly associate the perceptionof those stimuli with the appropriate bodily changes to prepare for adaptive responding. The basal ganglia, on