Background of the Study

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Elizabeth Gaskell‘s North and South was published in 1854-55 amidst the rapid industrialization and urbanization in Victorian Britain. The novel addressed what was widely perceived in Britain of 1850s as increasing social antagonism between classes. Due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, aristocratic and agricultural rural order in Southern Britain was weakening, whereas the new mercantile and manufacturing middle class was flourishing in Northern industrial cities. Besides the rising of the new wealthy middle class, industrialization also brought forth new proletariat class. New social hierarchy was established in the Northern industrial cities with wealthy factory owners at the top and impoverished industrial workers at the bottom. There was an increasing division of labor between masters and workers as the social paternalism was replaced by laissez-faire principle. Social paternalism which was used to be practiced in the country between squire and tenant farmer, and successfully maintained feudalism for ages was replaced by impersonal capitalist economy determined by the market place. Intimate and personal relationship between masters and workers during feudal era was replaced by contractual, more distant, and impersonalized relationship. Consequently, social antagonism became more complicated not only between the industrial North and the agricultural South, but also within the North between the masters and the workers. In North and South it is shown that the interests between classes, especially between those of masters and workers can be managed non-violently, ethically, and democratically. Through sympathetic interpersonal contact and dialogic communication grounded in the acknowledgment of ethical caring responsibility to each other, mutual understanding and PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 2 social harmony between classes can be cultivated. All needed to cultivate social harmony between classes is epitomized by the heroine of the novel, Margaret Hale, in her relationship with the mill owner John Thornton and the working class the Higgins family. Being uprooted from rural South to industrial North, Milton city, Margaret Hale, a middle-class daughter of a clergyman, witnesses the dehumanizing force of industrial exploitation to the workers‘ lives. She also witnesses antagonistic relationship between the masters and working class. Margaret sees that both classes endorse to antagonistic approach in dealing with their conflict of interests. Witnessing the dehumanizing force of industrial exploitation and antagonistic industrial relations between masters and workers, Margaret transcends all gender, sphere and class limitations to transform industrial relationship beyond cash nexus by mediating the industrial conflicts between masters and workers. She brings them together into interpersonal contact and advocates for social mothering as ethical caring relationship to alleviate the conflicts between masters and workers. In her dialogic 1 encounter with Thornton and Higgins, Margaret sees that the antagonism between masters and workers rooted in the ignorance on the interrelation and interdependence of masters‘ and workers‘ interests. Furthermore, their antagonistic relationship is also rooted in the master‘s ignorance to his ethical responsibilities for responding to his workers ‘ suffering and the necessity of dialogic communication between masters and workers to overcome class prejudice and misunderstanding. Masters‘ ignorance is the consequence of industrial capitalist maxim of laissez –faire that glorifies self-made man, sanctifies individual rights and non-interference on individual freedom. This maxim essentially justifies benign neglect based on the assumption that all human beings are equal 1 The term dialogic or dialogism in this thesis refers to a process of dynamic interaction or inter-animation of varied and opposing voices, characteristics, and ideas which are equally weighted without being suppressed, and thus, brings forth tensions, contradictions, indefiniteness, and plurality. Within this process self and other create and modify one another continually. Dialogic interaction resists essentialism and monologism which claims for absolute truth and closed-ended closure in addressing the relationship between ideas, values and individuals. 3 and autonomous. Consequently, no one is responsible for anyone else. This maxim suppresses the fact that human is not absolutely autonomous and independent. All human beings in particular time and condition depend on the caring and nurturance of others. All humans are interdependent and relational. Hence, all human beings have caring responsibility to each other. Nevertheless, along with the emergence of industrial capitalist economy, laissez-faire principle has suppressed this fact and changed the relationship between masters and workers becomes purely contractual, more distant, impersonalized and antagonistic. The principle has caused a lack of compassion among the masters and workers. The study on Gaskell ‘s novel suggests that social relationship has to be grounded not on the blind market forces or impersonal economic principles, but on humane ethical principles, such as ethics of care. To alleviate the social antagonism between masters and workers, ethical caring responsibility and sympathetic interpersonal communication are needed to nurture social harmony between the classes. Therefore, the novel through the voice of its heroine, Margaret, proposes for the importance of interpersonal contact between the masters and workers through dialogic communication, such as sharing economic information and decisions with workers to develop the workers‘ economic literacy and well-beings. Through ongoing intercourse with Margaret, Mr. Hale and Higgins, Thornton is able to see beyond class stereotype and undergoes transformation from hardhearted and authoritarian master into humane master who is able to develop ethical caring relationship democratically beyond cash nexus with his workers. Encouraged by Margaret, Thornton starts to perform social mothering to his workers. In the same time, this transformation is also followed with the resolved antagonistic relationship between him and Margaret. Through ongoing dialogue between them, both of them are able to solve their misunderstanding and consummate their growing romantic interest into marriage. 4 North and South emphasizes on the importance of nurturance, loving care, compassion, sympathy, interdependence and interpersonal relationships to break aggressive and antagonistic pattern of public life. These qualities are commonly associated with the concept of motherhood. Therefore, Patsy Stoneman claims that Gaskell‘s thinking is maternal 2 . For this reason many early feminist critics undervalue Gaskell‘s works. According to Deanna L. Davies the feminine nurturance on which Gaskell grounded her work and life is seen as traitorous to feminist stance. 3 Many feminists perceive motherhood as oppressive patriarchal institution to women. Many feminists consider that North and South celebrates the ideology of feminine sphere as something natural and given instead of criticizing woman oppression. Unlike other women novels written by Eliot and the Brontes, Gaskell‘s novel is considered as conservative and preserving feminine values rather than subversive toward patriarchy. Davies states that few recent feminist critics start to re- evaluate Gaskell‘s work and find that the emphasis on the caring or nurturance is not only the most interesting part but also the most potentially subversive. 4 This research shares a similar view that Gaskell‘s North and South is subversive. In North and South the concept of motherhood in patriarchal ideology is challenged and subverted. As patriarchal institution, motherhood consists of beliefs, traditions, attitudes, rules, customs and other norms imposed to women which deal with the care and rearing of children. North and South offers an alternative view to see mothering as loving care and nurturing attitude performed by women and men. As stated by Davies, North and South offers alternative view to see mothering as a social political category rather than biological category. 5 Davies further states that the concept of mothering in North and South is a kind of metaphor for a nurturing attitude toward other people that is not dependent on 2 Stoneman, Patsy. Elizabeth Gaskell. 2 nd . Manchester and New York: Manchester UP, 2006, p. 33. 3 Davies, Deanna, L. Feminist Critics and Literary Mothers: Daughters Reading Elizabeth Gaskell. Signs 17.3 Spring, 1992: p. 507. JSTOR. Web. 23 Mar. 2015. 4 Davies, p.507. 5 Davies, p. 521. 5 biological motherhood or female sex. 6 Based on Davies‘ statement above, the concept of mothering can be divided into two: biological and social political aspect. Biological category of mothering is not the concern of this research. The scope of this research is limited to the analysis on the concept of mothering as a social political category that can be performed by both male and female to challenge the dominance of patriarchal ideology and to remedy the antagonism of public life. 7 This research provides alternative term to accommodate the concept of mothering as social political category by using the term of social mothering. The characteristic of nurturance or loving care attitudes in social mothering is that it is no longer defined by one‗s gender and sex, but rather by the nature of the work one puts in which includes nurturance, loving care, compassion, sympathetic interpersonal relationship and subject empowerment. Social mothering is a social political category which can be performed both by women and men not only being limited to the rearing of children, but also including the nurturance and caring of the dependents in the society. The depiction on how social mothering is performed by both female and male characters in the novel might be interpreted as a challenge to what R.W. Connell calls hegemonic masculinity, that is, the idea that women are good at caring and men are not. 8 The subversiveness of North and South can be seen in the aspect that the concept of nurturance in the novel is not attached to one‘s sex, gender and marital status. Margaret, who is not yet a wife and mother, practices caring both in domestic sphere for her parents and brother and also in public sphere –crossing class division –for the working class, especially the Higgins family. Higgins as a male also practices caring to his motherless family and his friend‘s orphaned children. Moreover, in the end of the story Thornton starts mothering his 6 Davies, p.513. 7 The concept of social mothering in this research is treated as a proposal for alternative gender and class relations grounded on the ethic of care, instead of as a specifically female experience of mothering. Gender and class relations addressed in this research is limited to the context of Victorian era in which patriarchal ideology sharply defines gender norms, roles and separation of sphere for the working of capitalism or industrialism. 8 Tronto, Joan C. Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality and Justice. New York and London: New York UP, 2013, p. 68. 6 workers by providing communal catering arrangement and giving education to the workers about economic affairs. North and South proposes that mothering is not only exercised by women in private sphere but must also be expanded into public sphere across classes by both women and men to break the antagonistic pattern of public life. The concept of social mothering is characterized by subversive maternal thinking that it is proposed based on the assumption of the relationality between people and caring responsibilities to each other. Unlike patriarchal mothering which is oppressive to women, the concept of social mothering proposed in the novel is empowering not only women, but also humanity in general. The subversion of the patriarchal concept of biological mothering into social mothering in the novel can be considered as progressive and proto-feminist act because it precedes the attempt of several recent feminist thinkers in theorizing mothering as social political category, such as Sara Ruddick‘s definition of maternal thinking, Jean Bethke Elshtain‘s social mothering, Carol Gilligan‘s and Virginia Held‘s theory on ethics of care. The theorization of mothering as social political category by feminist thinkers initiates the movement of politicizing the personal for social transformation. Feminists criticize the patriarchal dualistic thinking that is responsible for the rigid separation between the personal and the public or political. This patriarchal dualistic thinking goes further by fragmenting and distorting human reality into exclusive and oppositional binaries in which the pairs are set into tension to determine dominance and subordinance. This dualistic thinking is responsible for the gender division of masculinefeminine and separation of public domain as masculine sphere from private domain as feminine sphere, and separation of human reason from human heart, passions from ideas, justice from love, and assignment of the matter of reason only to men and the matter of human heart exclusively to women. Consequently, mothering and caring values are always considered as something personal, private and apolitical in contrast to political economy as masculine, political and public. The PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 7 separation of human heart from human reason consequently results in the supremacy of liberal discourse of rights which justifies liberal rights-based ethics of justice as universal human morality, while ethics of care are seen as irrelevant and marginalized in governing public relationship. Moral capacities associated with care are devalued and are not seen among the most important ethical values. Liberal rights-based ethics of justice become the dominant ethical system both in patriarchal and capitalist society. Rights-based ethics of justice, which posit individuals as opponents in contests of rights, use a hierarchy of rights and rules to resolve moral conflicts. Consequently, human relationship becomes purely contractual, distanced, abstract and dominated by antagonism and aggression that inhibit meaningful and compassionate social relationship. Feminists believe that patriarchal dualistic thinking as manifested in the dichotomy of malefemale, publicprivate, personalpolitical, reasonemotion, bodymind, and subjectobject is impoverishing humanity. The exclusive assignment of human heart to women is seen as tragic for the dominant group which holds the power in society because they are alienated from fundamental human experience. Both reason and love are equally necessary for humanity. Therefore, for the feminists it is very important to politicize mothering or care, which are always assumed as personal, private and apolitical, as public ethics not only to empower women, but also humanity in general. The similar aim of politicizing the personal for social transformation might also be found in Gaskell‘s North and South. The proposal of the importance of social mothering to alleviate industrial conflicts and transform industrial relations beyond financial relationship in the novel can be interpreted as an attempt to reclaim the denigrated caring values and to politicize care as public ethics in order to break the antagonism in public life. To advocate the acknowledgment of caring values as public ethics, the patriarchal dualistic binaries of malefemale, mindbody, reasonemotion, publicprivate, 8 politicalpersonal, subjectobject, selfother are needed to be broken down. The challenge to patriarchal dualistic thinking is discussed in this research by discussing how the notion of stable and authentic self grounded on patriarchal dualistic thinking is challenged in the novel through the depiction of dialogic representation of the characters ‘ subjectivity. The challenge to the notion of stable and authentic identity is important in the politicization of care as public ethics to eradicate politics of exclusion, discrimination and marginalization. The acknowledgment of the contingency of self will prevent human tendency to convert differences into ‗othernesss‘ and thus promote the interrelationality and interdependence between human beings. One persisting objection to the politicization of ethics of care as public ethics is that they are incompatible with liberal principles of independence, freedom, autonomy, and justice on which public sphere is grounded. It is acknowledged that caring practice may have potential to lead to paternalism, favoritism, nepotism and parochialism. However, it is not unavoidable limitation of care to be acknowledged as a part of public morality. North and South in its politicization of care as public ethics depicts how care may be practiced ethically and democratically in consistent with the values of justice, equality and freedom. Ethical and democratic caring relations depicted in the novel may contribute to the current theorization of ethics of care and improve the understanding about their application in the public life. Therefore, ethical and democratic caring relation as a precondition for the politicization of care as public ethics is also discussed in this research. In proposing the concept of social mothering, North and South applies the literary strategy of polyphony and dialogism. The dialogism of the novel can be seen from its openness in dealing with tensions, contradictions, and ambiguity. The structure of the novel reveals that Gaskell does not apply male literary standards of plot which Brooks calls as ‗male 9 plot of ambition‘. 9 The characteristics of this ‗male plot of ambition‘ are: firstly, clear temporal sequence that does not disrupt the perception of real world chronological order, enabling the characters and readers to grasp past, present and future in a significant shape; secondly, consistent and coherent characterization, typically focused through a central protagonist who is usually male; and lastly, problem-solution pattern. 10 Besides that, male narrative tends to be monologue which only allows one version of truth with final authoritative conclusion that submerges and silences other voices. In contrast to male literary plot, the plot applied in North and South is digressive and disruptive. First, the plot is frequently disrupted and diverted by recollection of past, reflection and dream. Second, the characters are rarely consistent and coherent to particular gender and class identity. Third, narrative applied in North and South allows the plurality of voice of the narrator and characters to be present however contradictory it is. Fourth, the novel does not provide any narrative closure. This kind of plot might reflect that Gaskell challenges male literary plot. By accommodating plurality of voices that interact in dialogue, Gaskell creates multi-voiced text that can present dominant discourse and subversive discourse in the same time. According to Showalter it is a typical characteristic of double- voiced women‘s writing in which it always embodies the social, literary and cultural heritages of both the muted and the dominant.‖ 11 By creating this multi-voiced text, Gaskell is able to challenge hegemonic discourse of patriarchy and capitalism with feminine voice. It is only through this dialogic interaction that Gaskell can release feminine voice to infiltrate and challenge univocal male discourse to interact with the marginalized feminine voice and in the same time suggests the potential resistances and destabilization of oppressive discourse. 9 Page, Ruth, E. Literary and Linguistic Approaches to Feminist Narratology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p. 21. 10 Page, p.26. 11 Showalter, Elaine. Feminist Criticism in Wilderness. Critical Inquiry, 8.2. Writing and Sexual Difference Winter, 1981, p. 201. JSTOR. March 23, 2010. 10 The dialogic interaction in North and South can be found in the interaction between Margaret, Mr. Hale, Higgins and Thornton about the relation between masters and workers. All of the characters are allowed to express their agreements and disagreements in their own voices, dialects and style of language. The discourse of liberalism, paternalism and social mothering of the characters are engaged, challenged, and modified one another. Plurality of voices is accommodated fairly in North and South . Though the narrator‘s views are much closer to Margaret‘s than to Thornton‘s, this fact does not interfere with the text‘s dialogic fairness. All of the ideas, values and experiences voiced by the characters are equally weighted and given their dues. The consequence of plurality voices without privileging any voices is an open ending story. Different from male plot, Gaskell‘s plot is resistant to narrative closure. Even though, North and South urges that the treatment of class conflict through interpersonal and ethical caring relationship, it does not suggest that it will eliminate class struggle, though it may be alleviated. Thornton ‘s transformation into humane master and his marriage with Margaret does not significantly resolve the clashes between classes. Therefore, there is no definite solution offered in North and South to resolve social antagonism. The use of dialogic, open- ended and inconclusive narration can be discerned as an attempt to undermine patriarchal claim of absolute monological truth and dualistic thinking that underpin the ideology of gender and separation of sphere. Based on the above explanation, this research is conducted by focusing on the challenge to patriarchal dualistic thinking, such as selfother, malefemale, masculinefeminine, bodymind, reasonemotion, subjectobject, privatepublic or personalpolitical that underpins gender difference and separation of sphere. The challenge to patriarchal dualistic thinking is done by destabilizing the notion of stable and authentic self. This research pays attention on how the subjectivity of the novel‘s characters are represented PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 dialogically, in a sense that how the characters perpetually undergo transformations to reveal the contingency of their selves. This transformation happens in and due to the encounter with others characters. The dialogic subversion of patriarchal dualistic thinking is necessary as the ground from which the concept of social mothering is proposed in the novel. After the dialogic subversion is discussed, the analysis on how caring values are politicized as public ethics through the concept of social mothering will be discussed. The characteristics of social mothering in the novel are analyzed with feminist theories of maternal thinking and ethics of care to show that the concept of social mothering is a truly ethical and democratic caring relationship, and in accordance with the principles of justice, freedom and equality. Social mothering is potentially empowering not only women, but humanity in general from social inequality, social injustice, dominance and oppression.

1.2. Research Questions