daughter are compared and used to describe the cultural changes that took place during the lifetime of Grandmother Yu-fang.
2. Chinese Women’s Social Roles as represented in the life of De-hong 1931-
1951
De-hong was born in 1931 when most of China was ruled by Kuomintang party under Chiang Kai-Shek. It unified most of China. Furthermore, Japan invaded
Manchuria. Japanese occupied Yixian, Jinzhou. “Manchukuo” established under Pu Yi. De-hong lived through World War II, Japanese atrocities, and the end of the war.
From this description, De-hong had lived when China was ruled by different master or colonizer. This situation had given some impacts to the women’s social roles.
There are many proofs that can be raised through finding women’s social roles in that era.
a Education for the Chinese girls under Japanese Government
In 1938, De-hong was sent to elementary school. At that time, education was tightly controlled by the Japanese. At the school, she found discrimination
toward local and Japanese pupils. The novel tells, “... Japanese children attended separate schools, which were well equipped and well heated, with shining floors and
clean windows. The schools for the local children were in dilapidated temples and crumbling houses donated by private patrons. ... 59.” There was no proper education
available, but they received it.
It was not only the proof for discriminating between local and Japanese pupils. It was also apparent that for Chinese pupil girls received different education.
After several years, De-hong moved up into junior high school. Times had changed since De-hong’s youth, and young women were no longer confined to the four walls
of their home. It was socially acceptable for women to get a high school education. It is said in the novel that,
… However, boys and girls received different educations. For girls the aim was to turn them into “gracious wives and good mothers”, as the school
motto put it. They learned what the Japanese called “the way of a woman”—looking after household, cooking and sewing, the tea ceremony,
flower arrangement, embroidery, drawing, and the appreciation of art. The single most important thing imparted was how to please one’s husband. This
included how to dress… 69.
High education in this point means controlled and directed course. It is because a woman living in this era had to learn how to do housework and the
appreciation of art. Women had received some education materials that were differentiated between men and women. They had to learn informal materials that
showed how women should learn. It means, they are still controlled and limited in a broad learning situations. In this case, De-hong did not agree. She rebelled through
this kind of education. This novel described, “... as my grandmother put it, my mother seemed to have “rebellious bones,” and learned almost none of these skills, even
cooking.” 69. Hence, there is a chance for women to rebel against a custom. In addition, Moise explained, “… The status of women rose; a small but
increasing proportion of them obtained formal education, and the custom of foot- binding began to decline 50”. It is seen that education is growing up and the
existence of an old custom disappears. Furthermore, Twitchett and Fairbank in Buck clearly reported, “Of the 87.000 persons surveyed …, 45.2 percent of the males and
2.2 percent of the females reported receiving some schooling. … 66 percent reported that the education they received was in the traditional style 187”. From that report,
it is clear that women in this era received a traditional style school which was still limited.
Supported by those arguments, the conclusion can be drawn that education that is had by pupils and Chinese girls is still limited and controlled into the basic
position of the women themselves. Then, it can be concluded that Chinese women in this era still face limited struggle for their own education.
b Becoming Student Leader and Joining Communist Underground Member
In 1946, De-hong became student leader and joined Communist underground. Things had changed. In 1946 women could live in by themselves and
find work, like teaching or medicine, although working was still regarded as the last resort by most families 87. It means that women in this era seem to be independent.
They also can do various activities. The novel explains that:
My mother had been turning more and more strongly against the Kuomintang for some time. The only alternative she knew was the
communists, and she had been particularly attracted by their promises to put an end to injustices against women. Up to now, at the age of fifteen, she
had not felt ready to commit herself fully. The news of Cousin Hu’s death made her mind up. She decided to join Communists 99.
The novel concludes that she was appalled by the casual extravagance of the Kuomintang elite while people were starving to death in streets and this made her
even more committed to the communists 106. It can be drawn that economical destroyed and its result make her commit to be a communist. Edward clearly
describes, ... But the important development of these years came with the May Fourth
period and the revolutionary movement of the 1920s, which placed women’s liberation on the national agenda. This period also brought an expansion in the
political consciousness of women with social and ideological radicalisation in the Kuomintang, and the recruitment of a new generation of women into the
newly established Communist Party. During China’s long revolutionary years the state both promoted and negated new roles for women 28 .
It means that the conflict between Kuomintang and communist underlying the movement of women’s social roles. It shows that the recruitment of a new generation
of women into a communist party had influenced through their new roles as a party participant.
In 1948, De-hong was arrested by Kuomintang. She found his lecturing and his whole attitude insufferable. She said to commander in a loud voice. She protested
what had happened to her friends in Tianjin. From the moment the communist forces arrived, my mother had been longing to throw herself into working for the revolution.
She felt herself to be very much part of the Communist causes 127-128. By participating in a communist party, De-hong reflects the women’s social roles at this
era that women are still regarded as partial chance. It means that women can participate into political party in a limited chance. Moreover, Edwards observes that
these developments brought a new awareness of class to women activists who
hitherto had conceived of franchise rights as “equality between men and women of the educated and privileged classes. Yet the increasing awareness of class furthered
the development of the conception that women were unified as a group because of their collective disadvantage relative to men” 28. This addition makes it clear that
the equality between men and women of the educated and privileged class women had been raised through joining a communist party member.
In addition, the women’s social roles in joining party member can be seen clearly. Dittmer clearly described in Maloney that “…; whereas in the 1950s, only
one in ten Party members was female from 1966 to 1973, 27 percent of all new admissions were women … 185”. It means that women at this era can participate
into a certain political action, even though the chance was still limited.
For conclusion, it can be drawn that Communist regime allowed the women to show their new role as the party members. The equality between men and
women of the educated and privileged class women had been raised through joining a communist party member. However, women in this era are still regarded as partial
chance. It means that women can participate into political party in a limited chance.
c Revolutionary Marriage
At fifteen, De-hong was highly marriageable. She had grown into a very attractive and popular young woman, and she was the star pupil at her school. Several
officers had already proposed, but she told her parents she did not want any of them.
Marriage in this era seems different from the previous era. De-hong could reject the marriage proposal easily. The novel shortly describes, “... My mother was
eavesdropping outside the door as he put this proposal to her parents. She burst in and told him to his face that she would kill herself in the sedan chair. ...” 83.
Furthermore, Gitting assumes, “After years of sexual repression, young Chinese were now increasingly able to express open interest in questions of love and marriage”
244. He adds, “in the words of Zhou Enlai’s widow Deng Ying Chao … ‘young men and women should subordinate their own marriage and lifestyle to political
demands …” 245. Things had changed as well as the marital life of the women. The free ideology of the party had given a great impact to pitch upon some decisions; one
of them is rejecting a marriage proposal. It was difficult to say no in rejecting marriage offers. De-hong had made up
her mind to choose her own husband. The novel tells, “... She was disenchanted with treatment of women, and hated the whole system of concubinage. Her parents
supported her condition, but they were harassed by offers, and had to deploy intricate, nerve-racking diplomacy to find ways of saying no without unleashing reprisals”
83. Based on that point, it is also seen that parents agree with the decision made by De-hong. Women in this case indicate that they are free to choose their own decision.
Furthermore, it is found that the change happened about the marriage system between Yu-fang’s and De-hong’s. The novel describes, “... as in my
grandmother’s days, there were not many opportunities for boys and girls to mix, so being introduced to the brother or sister of a friend was a common way for young
people who did not like the idea of arranged marriages to get to know each other”83. To conclude, there is a change and opportunities for women to get as
many as friends especially getting boyfriend. They have many ways to do. Furthermore, McAleavy festinates, “… the communist legislators
recognized that to all intents and purposes their task was the extirpation of “feudal” institutions. Of these the most immediately obnoxious, as well as the easiest to deal
with, was concubinage 359”. It means that communist regime has created rules to eradicate old tradition, in this case means revolutionary marriage.
In Cina Sebuah potret bangsa, alam dan budaya explains that there is a marriage rule existing since 1950. It is described, “Sebuah hukum perkawinan baru
diperkenalkan yang memperbolehkan wanita memilih pasanganya sendiri dan diberikan hak setara dalam perceraian, kepemilikan anak-anak, dan harta benda.
Namun, efeknya terbatas dan di pedesaan umunya diabaikan 120.” “A new marriage rule had been introduced which allowing women to
choose their own spouse and given equivalent right on separation, children proprietary, and good and chattel. However, there is limited effects and to the
countryside generally neglected 120.” It means that there is a new rule relates with marriage system. It was free for women to decide their own spouse. They were also
given some facilitation through marriage problems. Furthermore, female emancipation toward marriage custom was
appeared. Twitchett and Fairbank reported, “… By the time of the New Culture movement of 1917-1921, this had become part of the rebellion of youth against
family domination. Freedom of personal choice in marriage was still another innovation 27”. The struggle to improve women’s social roles starts to appear.
Marriage is one of the results. From those arguments it can be concluded that marriage is found to be
evolved. It means that by the influence of communist movement, marriage becomes one of the effects of the cultural reformation. Meaning to say, marriage as well as the
other Chinese women’s social roles are evolving. In 1949, she became deeply involved in the Communist Party after
marrying a young Communist. Different from her mother, she was involved in political decisions, worked outside the home, and raised her child, mainly by
nursemaids because she was so busy with her job in the Communist regime. She showed how China was changing, and women were becoming far more involved in
the society and in the political process. She also rejected the young man her family had picked out for her to marry, something her own mother could never have done.
From the arguments that are showed, women’s social roles which is portrayed in De-hong life is changing. It becomes more active. Women in this era
were living on war and pressuring by foreigner countries. In educational view, the roles of women shade off. From the compulsory student under Japanese government
who allowed they learn. Learn in this case is still limited and controlled into the basic women course. It is because a woman living in this era had to learn how to do
housework and the appreciation of art. Then, it comes to the joining in student leader and communist underground. It means that communist regime allowed the women to
participate on the party movement. Women were approved their existence. The last is revolutionary marriage. It means that communist regime has created rules to eradicate
old tradition, in this case means revolutionary marriage. Marriage is seen as a commitment. Women were no longer as a subject of parental decision.
B. The Influences of the Regimes Authorities on the Women’s Social Roles
