Considering that the focus of the research is for junior high school teachers in Indonesian context and the nature of learning English is for a global communication
the concept of successful English learners in this study are constructed of factors exist in Indonesia as well as in global context. Successful English learners concept is
elaborated on learner variable, and learning variable.
2.1.3.1 Learner variables
Basically, learner variables are indicators which have already attached to a learner. Grifftiths 2008 cites that a successful English learner should have high
motivation, proper school age, preferred learning style, proper personality, gender regard, metacognition, developed autonomy, appropriate personal learning beliefs,
cultural experience, and language aptitude. The first learner variable is a motivation. It becomes the basis for a learner does
something. In the scope of English instruction, motivation appears as the reason why a learner learns English. Motivation is classified into two; intrinsic and extrinsic
Brown: 2001. Intrinsic motivation is an intention derived from a learner her himself learns English. It is mostly shaped as a result of self awareness toward the
importance of English for her his future life and self improvement, for example participating in a speaking club because of finding the activity enjoyable and playing
a scrabble because of finding it exiting. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation occurs when a learner is stimulated to get involved in an instruction to get reward or
avoid punishment, for example memorizing lists of vocabulary to get high mark and submitting home assignment on time not get mark reduction.
The second learner variable is learners‟ age. The age of students is a major
factor in making decision about how and what to teach. It affects English learners in terms of cognitive development. Harmer 2001 categorizes learner age into young
children, adolescents, and adult learners. Similarly, Piaget in Ormrod: 2011 proposes four stages of cognitive development. Sensory motor stays from birth to 2
years old . In this phase, a child‟s system is limited to motor reflexes at birth. In
preoperational stage 2 to 7 years old, a child acquires representational skills and especially language. In the following stage, concrete operational stage 7 to 12 years
old, a child is able to understand concrete problems and take multiple perspectives into account. The last, in formal operational stage 12 to adult a child is capable of
logical, theoretical, and abstract cognitive operations. A successful English learner should have a preferred learning style. Myers-
Briggs in Montgomery and Groat 1998 classifies learning styles into four. The first style is learners who are keen on the orientation to life. This group of learners is
divided into those who enjoy in group interaction and application extroverted and enjoy working alone to make concepts and ideas introverted. Secondly, learners
like to make perception. Learners in this group might use sensing in organizing facts, data, and routine. In addition, learners may use intuitive to manage impressions but
do not like routine. Another style classification is decision making. In making decision, learners may use thinking and feeling. Ones who use thinking will behave
objectively and logically. On the other hand, learners who use feeling in making decision will behave subjectively. The last style category is attitude to outside world.
In this group of learners, they tend to make judgment and perception. In making
judgment, planning and control are more dominating while in making perception, spontaneity and adaptive styles are more dominating.
It is not enough to have good intelligence to be successful English learners without proper personality. Personality has typical characteristics among person and
distinguishes one person to other from the behavior, attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, actions, and feelings. Personality factors influencing people in learning language are
self-esteem, inhibition, anxiety, and risk taking which can contribute to motivation and the choice of learning strategies Richards and Schmidt: 2002.
The following learner variable is the gender. There are some differences between female and male student in the context of language instruction. According to
Brown 2001, research highlights that female and male typically use language differently. Women have frequently used more concessive language than men and
tend to talk less in a mixed sex conversation. Henes 1994 adds that research points out more female students follow patterns used in an instruction than male students.
Hingley in Graham 1997 supports that girls are generally encouraged to be more conscientious than boys. Considering gender composition within group is necessary
to ensure that all group members gain equal experience as unbalance gender composition affect the success of group work.
One factor distinguishing proficient and less proficient English learner lies in the conscious ability to evaluate what have been mastered and not yet mastered and
the ability how to struggle in achieving self improvement. The ability is well known as meta cognition. In EFL context, teachers should provide classroom activities that
enhance meta cognition ability. Ghonsooly and Eghtesadee 2006 states that learners
who can use meta cognition effectively are aware to hold their responsibility in planning, monitoring, evaluating, and self correction to their learning. Dawson
2008 describes model of meta cognition chain as follows.
Figure 2.3 Meta cognition model by Dawson 2008
From the figure, students with meta cognition ability are able to identify learning
objectives, select particular strategies to achieve the objectives, monitor the chosen strategies, manage add or change a number of strategies to achieve the learning
objectives, and the last, evaluate the selected strategies. The action in developing the meta cognition can be in the form of realizing learning problems and have sensitivity
to solve the problems. In solving the problems, the students are independently finding the preferred strategies. As the nature of a learning domain in which it is not
limited in the classroom area, students with meta cognition solve the learning problems independently either by making a use of any learning sources or asking
other more competent people teachers. Thus, an active student facilitates hisher meta cognition development.
To be a successful English learner, she he should be autonomous. Autonomy is frequently close to awareness and responsible. When a learner is aware of her his
responsibility, autonomy starts attaching to herhis learning. Scharle and Szabo 2000 define autonomy as “freedom and ability to manage one‟s own affairs which
entails the right to make decisions as well.” Farell and Jacobs 2010 mention that autonomy is the key role that learners hold to be success in their education.
Autonomy in this case does not mean learners work alone but they are able collaborate with their peers to move away from dependence on the teacher to
independence. Learners need to be trained as autonomous learners since even though it has been enough to have much learning through classroom context, there is always
plenty more they will need to learn by practice on their own. Belief in a language instruction is not only a value owned by teachers but also
students. Appropriate learner belief encourages successful English learner development. Understanding learner beliefs in this context is crucial, since it has
been noted that successful learners develop aware beliefs about language learning processes, their own abilities, and the use of effective learning strategies, which have
a facilitative effect on learning. According to Kern, Weinstein, and Peacock in Bernat and Lloyd 2007 argue that learner beliefs tend to be stable, strongly seized,
and resistant to change. Thus, it is necessary to guide learners in order to have appropriate learning belief.
Promoting learners to be successful need to see their environment. It is closely related to the culture they experience. The cultural dimension of language learning is
an important dimension of second language studies. In foreign language teaching the
culture of the language may be taught as an integral part of the curriculum. Cole in Brooker and Woodhead 2010 argue that children acquire language at the same time
they acquire culture. For example, in asking for help from an older man it is more polite to say „Could you help me?‟ instead of „Help me‟ In this case, culture teaches
the speakers to use more polite expression in talking to older people. Haynes and Zacarian 2010 argue that learning a language involves learning the norms of the
culture in which the language is used. For example, a text describing students in senior high school in UK who elects class officers may teach how democratic
process in UK is. The last element of learner variables is language aptitude. Unlike motivation,
interest, and intelligence, aptitude is natural. Richards and Schmidt 2002: 285 state that
“Language aptitude appears as the natural ability to learn a language. A person with high language aptitude can learn more quickly and easily than a person
with low language aptitude. It is structured as a combination of various abilities, such as oral mimicry ability the ability to imitate sounds not heard
before, phonemic coding ability the ability to identify sound patterns in a new language, grammatical sensitivity the ability to recognize the different
grammatical functions of words in sentences, and the ability to infer language rules.
” 2.1.3.2 Learning variables
Different from learner variables, learning variables are such elements to be mastered by a learner while learning a language. Proposed by the same author,
Grifftiths 2008 mentions that learner variables consist of vocabulary, grammar, language function, pronunciation, listening, speaking, reading, writing, teaching
learning method, strategy instruction, error correction, and task completion.
Developing those learning variables in the post modern era is often conducted in integrated way, mostly integrating the for language skills with associated skills such
as knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, and syntax Oxford: 2001. She proposes two forms of integrated skill instruction, i.e. content-based instruction and
task-based instruction. However, the practice of integrated skills instruction can be the combination of some variables, such as 1 integrating vocabulary, grammar, into
reading and writing, 2 integrating language function and pronunciation into listening and speaking, and 3 integrating other four variables-teaching learning method,
strategy instruction, error correction, task completion- into any variable. Developing the first variable, vocabulary, includes word meaning, how words
extend their use, how words combine, and the grammar of words Harmer: 2001 . In a word meaning case, the point of word meaning is not necessarily the same as what
it suggests as sometimes words have different connotations so it often depends on the context it occur
s. For example, „table‟ can mean 1 a kind of furniture with legs which we can write on and 2 small boxes drawing to list information. A word can
also have be stretched and twisted to fit different context and different uses through extending word use such as in „The ticket price went up and I went up the stairs. The
first „went up‟ means increase while the second „went up‟ means move to the upper position. Even though a word can stand as single item, more words can occur in two
or more item groups though word combination collocation. For example, „fast
asleep ‟ is an acceptable collocation but „fast awake‟ is not. Talking about the
grammar of words, part of speech and word class are the points of this rule. For example, „Rebecca has some books‟ and „Rebecca has some furniture‟. The word
„book‟ has plural form as it belongs to countable noun on the other hand the word „furniture‟ does not.
The second learning variable that is used to describe how words can change their forms and be combined into sentence is grammar. The most familiar tool in
grammar is tree diagram where language learner can know structure of words in a sentence. A simple tree diagram basically consists of NP noun phrase and VP verb
phrase. An NP contains a D determiner and an N noun. A VP consists of a V verb and an NP noun phrase. There are of course many other unit rules on
grammar such as tense and morphemes. As the main purpose of using a language is to communication, learning
language function is seen as a necessary point in learning variable. Harmer 2001 proposes four elements determining what kind of language function speaker can use
including setting, participants, gender, channel, and topic. Language function in English subject in Indonesian curriculum is divided into interpersonal and
transactional use. Woods 2010 argues that interpersonal expression is used to establish, maintain, and signal relationships between people whereas transactional
expression focuses on the message for turn taking, topics, and discourse management.
In relation to communication especially oral form, pronunciation is one of the factors that make it understandable. According to Brown 2001 the goal of learning
pronunciation correctly is being able to produce correct intonation falling and raising, accent, stress, and rhythm. Some factors may constrain learners in learning
pronunciation, i.e. learners‟ native language, age, exposure, innate phonetic ability,
identity and language ego, and motivation for good pronunciation. Gilakjani 2011 adds other factors; accent, attitude, instruction, and personality. In order to learn
pronunciation, all of those aspects should be taught communicatively through conversation, drilling, expert guidance, and critical listening.
Language skills in learning variables become the media which are possibly used to integrate the development of other variables. Language skills are
distinguished based on the cycle spoken and written cycle or the process sequence receptive and productive skill. Based on the process sequence, listening is the first
skill employed in communication. Harmer 2001 differentiates listening skill into extensive and intensive listening. Extensive listening takes place outside classroom
space. Its purpose is to give more opportunities in developing listening skills including vocabulary and grammar development. In order to encourage extensive
listening, teachers can have learners perform a number of tasks, such as recording their responses toward they hear, fill in report form, and summarize the contents of a
tape. Another listening type is intensive listening which is sometimes called as live listening. To encourage intensive listening, teachers may have some activities, like
reading aloud, storytelling, interviews, and conversation. In terms of spoken oral cycle, speaking is employed as the productive skill of
listening. The same as language function, the matters of speaking are basically divided into interpersonal and transactional dialogue. The ability to speak fluently
requires not only knowledge of language features but also the ability to process information and language spontaneously. To encourage learners speaking activities,
Harmer 2001 proposes classroom speaking activities, i.e. acting from a script, communication games, discussion, prepared talks, simulation, and role play.
After employing spoken cycle skills, written cycle skills are revealed. Reading skill is determined as the receptive skill of written cycle. Brown 2001 distinguishes
classroom reading performance into oral and silent reading as the following figure.
Figure 2.4 Classroom reading performance
Oral reading is more appropriately implemented at the beginning level. It can be used as an evaluative check on the pronunciation and attract students‟ attention if the
teachers want to highlight particular segment of a reading passage. On the other hand, silent reading is more appropriate for advanced level. The intensive reading
may attract students‟ attention to more complex aspect of a passage, such as grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other details to understand the text.
Similarly, extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general understanding of longer text usually for pleasure reading such as book, long article, and essay.
In communicative framework, writing is considered more complicated language skill than the other three. Different with speaking, the result of writing is
scripted, requires correct spelling, punctuation, coherent, and cohesion. To help students writing accordingly, Grenville 2001 proposes six steps of working on
writing. They include getting ideas, selecting ideas, outlining ideas into the best order, drafting beginning ideas to the end, revising the draft, and editing the
grammar, spelling, and paragraph. In relation to English curriculum in Indonesia, writing is basically divided into writing functional text, monologue, and essay.
To develop learning variables, learning and teaching method plays important role. There are two English learning teaching models in the pre modern era;
Grammar-Translation GTM and Audiolingual Method. According to Byram 2004 Grammar-Translation Method was developed around eighteenth and nineteenth
century, based on the method of studying Latin and Greek adopted by European in the Middle Age. This language teaching method deals with transferring grammatical
rules and translating the written text of foreign language into a particular mother tongue based on grammatical analysis. It is also known as Classical method,
Traditional method or Readings method. The GTM runs by focusing on the reading and activity with less attention to
speaking and listening Richard Rodgers 2001. It aimed at developing logical thinking, intellectual capacities to attain a generally educational and civilizing effect
and developing an ability to read original text in the language concerned as well. Audiolingual method is used in the Unites States and other countries from
1950‟s until 1960‟s, and still used in some programs today. The structural view of
language is the view behind the audio-lingual method. It emphasizes in mastering the building blocks of language and learning the rules for combining them. In the
implementation in the classroom dialogues and drill are the main activities since this method tend to focuses more on listening rather than three other skills writing,
reading and speaking. Communicative Language Teaching CLT is regarded as the model of English
learning teaching in the scope of new pragmatism. In this approach, what is meant by language is a system in expressing the meaning. The learning theory of this approach
is regarded as activities that involve real communication, in which language is used for carrying out meaningful task and is meaningful to the learners, promote learning.
The process of expressing the meaning in communicative language learning runs by doing exercise. The knowledge of expressing meaning is acquired by
interacting and communicating. The resources of knowledge are gained from the language skills and functions and also through the interaction. The main objective of
CLT is that learners will learn language as a means of expression therefore they can expressing both values and judgements and they can learn to express the function
that best meet their own communication need as well. According to Littlewoods 1981, there are two major activities type in CLT.
The first one is functional communication activities which aimed at developing certain language skills and functions and the second is social interaction activities,
such as conversation and discussion, dialogues and role plays. The scope of Communicative approach can be included: Text-based Language Teaching, Content-
based Instruction CBI and Contextual Language Teaching.
Text based language teaching-also known as genre based language teaching-is a post of communicative language teaching approach. It uses text as the media of
teaching language. In text based language teaching, language occurs as whole texts which are embedded in the social context in where it is used. People learn language
through working with whole texts. Students acquire knowledge by analyzing from the outlined perspective and involving the use of synonyms, paraphrasing, gap-
filling, text construction, and so on. Content-based Instruction CBI refers to a program in English as a second
language in which the focus is on the content information that they will require in regular classrooms such as math, geography, or biology. CBI is developed under two
principles, first, people learn a second language effectively when they use the language in contextual information. The
second, CBI reflects learners‟ needs for learning a second language. The objectives of CBI are triggering and building up
presented English language skills, obtaining learning skills and strategies that could be applied in future language development opportunities, building up general
academic skills appropriate to university studies in all subject area as well as expanding students‟ understanding of English-speaking users
In Contextual Language Teaching, language is seen as a contextual concept related to the real world. By learning a language students acquire knowledge by
searching the relationship between the information of a language and stu dents‟
current environment. The teaching learning process aimed at facilitating the students so they can acquire knowledge and skills in meaningful context such as home and
community and also encouraging students in directing their own learning, monitoring their own progress as well as learning together as well as from each other.
Another learning variable is strategy instruction. It is a powerful student- centered to teaching to transform weak learners into students who know how to learn
and apply their knowledge and skills actively across various learning environments. Luke 2006 proposes three elements in sequence in implementing a strategy
instruction, i.e. maximizing the tools and techniques that efficient learners use to understand and learn new materials or skill, managing already identified knowledge
to be more meaningful for learners pre-requisite knowledge, and recalling the information or skill later in different context.
In a learning process, learners do not always do in the right track. They sometimes make error thus teachers need to do error correction. A number of
techniques can be done in doing error correction. Teachers are obviously welcome to select appropriate error correction techniques proposed by Loewen 2007 based on
type or error learners make. One technique that has received considerable attention recently is recasting. A recast correctly reformulates a student‟s incorrect utterance
while maintaining the central meaning of the utterance. Furthermore, prompting can be used as other alternative in error correction. In prompting, the teacher does not
provide the correct form but rather attempts to get the student to self-correct. Another type of error correction is the provision of metalinguistic information regarding the
error. With this technique, it is more certain that the learners will notice the correction. While error correction in meaning-focused activities seems to be
beneficial for learners, there are still some considerations. Too much error correction
can discourage learners‟ development and shift the primary focus from
communication to linguistic forms. The last element of learning variable is task. Task is considered as an important
element in language learning as task gives comprehensible input for language acquisition.
Nunan 2004: 4 defines a task in pedagogical context as “a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing,
or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning and in which the attention
is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form.” Basically task is distinguished into real life tasks such as making a telephone call, giving directions to somebody in
the street, planning a vacation, application to a job and pedagogical task such as positioning hour and minute hands of a model clock, naming parts of a body. In a
task completion, learners have two roles, i.e. as a monitoring participant who provides opportunity to notice how language is used in communication and as a risk
taker and innovator who train for critical meaning guess from the context and ask for clarification.
To sum up, successful English learners have three parameters which may overlap the other parameters mentioned previously. I define successful English
learners as students who are able to accomplish the learning activity, practice English for communication, and have meta cognition. Accomplishing the learning activity,
the students are expected to achieve every learning objective successfully so that they are able to communicate in English orally and in the written form and capable to
manage their ability using meta cognition. Considering the parameters, the term
„developing‟ implies making the students aware of the significance of learning, able to communicate, and have meta cognition ability.
2.1.4 Junior High School Students
