European nations. Britain’s defense policy rests on membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO, along with the United States and other
member states. As a member of the Western European Union WEU, the United Kingdom is part of a forum that consults and cooperates on defense issues
concerning European NATO members. Britain also belongs to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe OSCE, whose 55 member nations work
to foster and protect human rights. Britain is an original member of the Council of Europe, whose 40 parliamentary democracies work together on human rights and
social and cultural issues http:encarta.msn.com.
D. Science and Technology
Britain has been a world leader in science and technology, and since the Industrial Revolution the nation has been a pioneer in the use of machinery. The
profession of modern engineering emerged from the work of the skilled craftsmen of the 18th and 19th centuries. The British have appreciated and encouraged inventors
and scientists, and in pure science, the country has produced a steady stream of solid research. More than 70 British citizens have been awarded the Nobel Prize in science,
second only to the United States. In the 20th century, British science and technology continued on the
cutting edge. British technology pioneered in the development of radar and jet engines. British scientists contributed to the 1953 discovery of the molecular structure
of deoxyribonucleic acid DNA as well as subsequent breakthroughs in medicine and
genetics, including DNA fingerprinting, gene therapy, in vitro fertilization, and cloning. Other contributions include the discovery of cholesterol and vitamin D. In
chemistry, British scientists have developed a biodegradable plastic and are working on substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons, which destroy the Earth’s ozone layer. British
scientists in Antarctica first discovered a hole in the ozone layer in 1985. British scientists have also made advances in the fields of astrophysics and
superconductivity. They also are at the forefront in developing semiconductors and fiber-optic cables.
One contemporary British scientist has gained worldwide attention not only for his accomplishments but because he has surmounted severe disabilities.
Stephen Hawking, a theoretical physicist, suffers from an incurable disease of the nervous system. He regained his power of speech only through a computerized voice
synthesizer. Hawking has made major contributions to the study of the origin of the universe and black holes, and his work has supported the big bang theory of the
creation of the universe. As a professor of mathematics at Cambridge, Hawking wrote A Brief History of Time 1988.
E. Cultural Aspect
