15 g
The Army’s Automated Readability Index ARI The other formulas of readability which is used for the U.S Army
is The Army’s Automated Readability Index ARI. As elaborated by Dubay, that this formula is created by Smith and Senter that used an
electric typewriter modified with three micro switches attached to cumulative counter for words and sentences. The ARI formula produces
reading grade levels GL as the following:
20
GL = 0.50 words per sentence + 4.71 strokes per word – 21.43.
h The Navy Readability Indexes NRI
The Navy Readability Indexes NRI is the recalculation of ARI, Flesch and Fog Count Formulas. Those readability formulas recalculated
by Kincaid, Fishburne, Rogers, Chissom and Fishburne. They make the experiment aimed to recalculating the readability formulas and to
validating the effectiveness of the recalculated formulas on Navy materials. In which they are measured by comprehension scores on Navy
training manuals, and finding out the relationship of readability and learning time, as it is considered being an important measurement of
readability. The results of the recalculations are as follows:
21
ARI simplified: GL = .4 words per sentence + 6 strokes per word
– 27.4 Fog Count New:
Where: Easy words = number of number of 1 and 2-syllable words per 100 words
Hard words = number of words of more than 2 syllables per 100 words
Sentences = number of sentences per 100 words Flesch Reading Ease formula which is simplified and converted to grade
level GL and later on it is known as Flesch Kincaid Grade Level. GL
= 0.39 ASL + 11.8 ASW – 15.59
Where: GL = position on a scale of 0 difficult to 100 easy,
ASL = average sentence length the number of words
divided by the number of sentences. ASW = average number of syllables per word the number of
syllables divided by the number of words.
20
Ibid., p. 49.
21
Dubay. Op. Cit., p. 49.
16 i
ATOS Readability Formula Dubay elaborates the other readability formula namely
Advantage-TASA Open Standard ATOS Readability formula for books.
22
It is an open formula that would be available to the educational community free of charge, that would be easy to use and that could be
used with any nationally normed reading tests. This computerized system developed by combining three variables namely words per sentence, the
average grade level of words, and characters per word. The researchers at Renaissance as the creators of the formula conclude that: 1 Maximum
learning gain requires careful matching of book readability and reading skill, 2 The amount of time spent reading correlates highly with gains in
reading skill, 3 Book length can be a good indication of readability, 4 Feedback and teacher interaction are the most important factors in
accelerated reading growth.
Measuring readability of textbook is not as simple as we think, since there are many factors involved and interrelated. It is known that most both
classic and new readability formulas above concern to measure the readability from the syntactic and semantic structure of text. Only a few of
them consider the reader reading skill. Researchers break down readability into three factors area of measurement as mentioned by Kasule text-based,
reader-based and author-based of readability. Therefore, measuring readability of certain textbooks is not provided a reliable assessment when it
is only measuring the text based and author based factors. To present the more reliable one Kasule suggests the appropriate way to measure readability
as follows:
“Not all these factors are quantifiable... Therefore, a combination of formulas to measure text-based and author based factors and tests
to measure reader-based factors provide a more reliable assessment
of the readability a given textual item.”
23
Further, Chall as quoted by Elizabeth stated that “Readability
formulas do not determine how easy or hard the materials should be for a class, a group, or an individual, instead, they give only estimates of how
difficult the materials probably are”.
24
Therefore, the way teachers or librarians find out if the text is understandable for their students is by giving
them the actual experience to read the text themselves. After that it is followed by giving them some questions related to the text they read. We
could not know how far students understand the text and how much they
22
Ibid., pp. 53 —54.
23
Kasule. Loc. Cit., p.64.
24
Instone Elizabeth. The Variance Amongts The Results of Readability Formulas Regarding U.S. History Textbooks. College of Bowling Green State University. 2011. pp.
14 —15.
17 comprehend the content revealed in the text before testing them. Concerning
the current interest of readability which has a close relation with reading ease and comprehension of a text or book and to measure it Elizabeth elaborates
Chall statement that “At best, readability formulas give only predictions of readability. The ultimate test of difficulty is a try-out or field test with readers
for whom the material is intended”.
25
As a result, the readability level of textbook gained is not automatically reflected the ease level of students to
comprehend a text. Now widely used by researchers, teachers and librarians to predict the legibility of text, book, or other printed media.
The explanation above encourages writer to conduct a research in readability of English textbook by making use of a formula to measure the
readability of text and a test to measure reader-based factor. Johnson as quoted by Kasule recommended that readability be objectively determined
using formula and cloze test. Therefore in this research, for measuring English textbook readability the writer will make use of Fry Readability
Graph and Coleman formula which uses cloze procedures as a criterion test to determine whether the textbook is readable by students.
E. Students’ Reading Level
Measuring readability of textbook on the reader factor has close relation with reading and reading comprehension. Students can make sense
the matter and the language they learn reflected by their understanding of their English textbook. The way students comprehend textbook is much
influenced by their reading level. As overviewed by Perekem and Agbor that
“Students read most successfully if the reading material they are given matches
their reading level.”
26
Therefore, students’ performance in reading and reading comprehension is such focus in relating the readability of
textbook to students reading level. However, textbooks are rarely used by teacher in supporting teaching learning activities in their classroom especially
reading instruction. In accordance with Wade and Moje as overviewed by Kamil and friends as follows:
“Although textbooks and their accompanying curriculum guides are used extensively by teachers to present content and to structure
classroom learning activities, most studies have found that students
25
Ibid., p. 15
26
Bertola Perekem and Catherine Alex Agbor. Readability of Language Textbooks Prescribed for Junior Secondary Schools and Students’ Performance in Reading
Comprehension in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, Vol. 9 No. I, 2012, p. 90.
18 engage in little reading of any kind of published text, either in class or
as homework, other than basal texts used for reading instruction. ”
27
The quotation above revealed that only a few students who can engage in reading textbook both in class and out side the class. Whereas,
reading is one of comprehensible inputs for the students. If they are reluctant to read any book or other reading materials, potentially that they could not
understand the content of the book. That is why the book become unreadable among them. As mentioned above that textbook readability has a close
relation with reading and reading comprehension. Reading is one of the language skills that should be experienced by the students when they are
learning a language. Researchers of India, Patel and Jain give an overview that:
“Reading means to understand the meaning of printed words i.e. written symbols. Reading is an active process which consists of
recognition and comprehension skill. Reading is an important activity in life with which one can update hisher knowledge. Reading skill is
an important tool for academic success.”
28
By means of reading one can update and expand hisher knowledge through information provided by the text, passage, discourse and the like.
Other than that, it can affect to one’s thought in generating the ideas in writing, stimulating discussion, and studying a language covered foreign
language.
Brown notes that “reading comprehension is primarily a matter of developing appropriate, efficient comprehension strategies”
29
. Thus students should be equipped by skills and strategies in order that their comprehension
of a text will be more in-depth. Both teachers and students have their own role in carrying out such approach in reading comprehension, which is
affecting to the students’ understanding of a text. Further Patel and Jain elaborate the process of reading that broadly
classified into three stages namely recognition stage, strcuturing stage and interpretation stage. At the recognition stage the learner simply recognizes
the graphic counterparts of phonological items. At the structuring stage learners sees the syntactic relationship of the items and understands the
structural meaning of the syntactical units. While at the interpretation stage learners comprehend the significance of a word, a phrase, or a sentence in the
overall context of the discourse, and it is the highest level in reading
27
Michael L. Kamil, Peter B. Mosenthal, P. David Pearson and Rebecca Barr. Handbook of Reading Research Vol III. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2000, p. 613.
28
M. F. Patel and Praveen M. Jain. English Language Teaching: Methods, Tools, and Techniques. Jaipur: Sunrise Publisher. 2008, p. 113.
29
H. Douglas Brown. Teaching by Principles. An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. 2nd Ed, San Francisco: Longman. 2000, p. 306.
19 process.
30
Therefore reading comprehension is standing on the third stage of reading. Besides, the other significant information or knowledge that helps
reader understanding the text is required as well. There are two great types of reading those are intensive and extensive
reading. Intensive and extensive reading according to Eskey as overviewed by Hinkel is “Intensive reading working with small amounts of text in class
to make various points about the nature of texts and reading process... extensive reading is assigning whole texts to be read outside of class or in a
reading lab setting.”
31
Intensive reading materials in this case are very limited. It is only what has relation with readers going to learn, discuss and
might be the sources for writing activity unlike the extensive one. According to Patel and Jain state that:
“Intensive reading material will be the basis for classroom activity. It will not only be read but will be discussed in detail in the target
language, sometimes analysed and used as a basis for writing exercises... extensive reading is the reading for pleasure. The reader
wants to know about something. The usually people read for to keep
them update.”
32
The two definitions above are indicating that the purpose of extensive reading is to fulfil their curiosity and need of knowledge, information and
joys. Formal shape setting is not required in this situation, therefore reader can have it anywhere and anytime like reading newspapers, magazines,
novels and many others.
A different point of view regarding intensive reading come from Nation, he states that “intensive reading focuses on comprehension of a
particular text with no thought being given to whether the features studied in this text will be useful when reading other texts. Such intensive reading
usually involves translation and thus comprehension of the text.”
33
So that intensive reading needs such interpretation to get the points of a text. The
result could be a reference when one intends to read other texts. Meanwhile, regarding extensive reading, Nation views that
“Extensive reading fits into the meaning-focused input and fluency development strands of a course, depending on the level of the books that the
learners read.”
34
Extensive reading is an enrichment input for readers to accomplish their task or satisfaction. What adults read will differ with what
30
Patel and Jain. Op. Cit., pp. 115 —116.
31
Eli Hinkel. Handbook of Research in second Language Teaching and Learning, Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2005, pp. 543
—547.
32
Patel and Jain. Op. Cit., pp. 118 —120.
33
I.S.P. Nation. Teaching ESLEFL Reading and Writing, New York: Routladge. 2009, p. 25.
34
Ibid., p. 49.
20 young learners read, what university students read will differ with what
elementary or junior high school read. As every level age has different need of input and different aims of accomplishment.
In addition, Renandya and Jacobs in their journal, overview Davis’s description of extensive reading as edited by Richards and Renandya that:
“An extensive reading programme is a supplementary class library scheme, attached to an English course, in which pupils are given the
time, encouragement, and materials to read pleasurably, at their own level, as many books as they can, without the pressures of testing or
marks.”
35
From the explanation above intensive reading have some characteristics among others: intensive reading helps students to develop
active vocabulary; in this type of reading teacher plays the main role; during comprehending the text linguistic item are developed; this kind of reading
purposes to make the language used actively; since intensive reading is reading aloud, so speech habit are emphasized in order that accent, stress,
intonation and rhythm could be corrected.
The characteristics of extensive reading as elaborated by Patel and Jain that:
“...same like intensive reading, the extensive one help learner to develop to active vocabulary as well; because it is silent reading the
subject matter is emphasized; the main role is played by the students themselves, in the sense they have to ask for measures; the idea here
can be developed it is in line with the aim of this extensive reading
that is to enrich learners’ knowledge; and by extensive reading the habit of good reading can be developed.
36
The difference between intensive reading and extensive one is the passion. Passion of extensive reading appears from the reader themselves, so
it gives more impression to them. It differs with the intensive one which is commonly based on such assignment, so the impression seems forced the
readers up.
While Nation mentions that intensive reading is focus on some aspects, namely comprehension, regular and irregular sound-spelling
relations, vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, information structure, genre features and strategies.
37
These aspects are interrelated each other when students promote to translate and comprehend a text.
It is known that reading comprehension is part of intensive reading. It usually involves translation and comprehension of the text. By translating the
35
Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya. Methodology in Language Teaching. An Anthology of Current Practice, Singapore: Cambridge University Press. 2002, p. 296.
36
Patel and Jain. Op. Cit., p. 119.
37
Nation. Op. Cit., p. 49
21 text expected students understand it, teacher can make sure and it will be
conducted well when it follows Patel and Jain’s guidelines as follows
38
: a.
The material presented before the students hold reading comprehension, and should be concordance with the previous knowledge or related to
their own experience. b.
Teacher should emphasize on students’ stressing. c.
If any mistake committed by the student during the process of reading is going on, teacher should correct it friendly and productively.
d. Teacher should care about all readers especially for the weak one.
e. While teacher presenting a model of reading, it should be according to
the students’ level of reading. In teaching reading and leading students to comprehend a text, teacher
should integrate with the other language skills those are listening, speaking, and writing. This collaboration of all language skills possibly brings students
to their level of understanding of a text. So that, through speaking or writing, they are able to describe and express what they have read on their English
textbook easily. Other than the previous guidelines, comprehension is also affected by illustrations. Chall and Squire overviewed as edited by Barr that:
“Most researchers report that illustration can either facilitate or hinder comprehension, depending on the nature of the visual, its location, the
level of the reading materials, and the extent to which it is designed to
direct reader to the instructional focus rather than detract of it.”
39
From the quotation above known that the illustration is not a basic principle to enhance students’ comprehension, it depends on many factors
among other the level of the reading materials and the extent to which it is designed to the instructional focus.
Measuring students’ comprehension then becomes a necessity. Some linguists state that to determine students’ comprehension of a text can be
measured by making use of various types of comprehension questions as major means of focusing on students reading comprehension of a text. Nation
elaborates some types of questions can be used as follows
40
: a.
Pronominal questions are questions beginning with who, what, when, how, why, etc. These questions commonly use in testing writing ability as
well as reading ability. e.g.: Who is Jokowi? What is his opinion about his New SUV? Etc.
b. YesNo questions and alternative questions only need short answers, so
the learners do not need to have a high level of writing skill. e.g.: Was Kiat Esemka assembled by students of SMKN 2 Surakarta?
38
Patel and Jain. Op. Cit., p. 121.
39
Rebecca Barr, Michael L. Kamil, Peter B. Mosenthal and P. David Pearson. Handbook of Reading Research Vol II, Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1996, p.128.
40
Nation. Op. Cit., pp. 32 —33.
