18 The figure shows that the symbolic systems are connected to sensory input
and response output systems. From the figure, Paivio tries to explain that there is an equal weight to verbal and nonverbal processing. As Paivio 1986, p. 53
states, “Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing
simultaneously with language and with nonverbal object s and events”. This theory
notes that there are two cognitive subsystems, one is for dealing with nonverbal objects and the other is for processing languages. The verbal and nonverbal
representations differ in their internal representation formed in the long-term memory. Whereas, the nonverbal information will be processed into imagens, the
verbal information is more likely to be encoded into logogens. Then, according to Paivio 1990, these two internal codes are interconnected by referential links so
that they can activate each other. For example, the word mango could activate a mental image of a mango tree. In this case, we can note that verbal and nonverbal
information may yield a propositional representation as well as an analogical representation by constructing a mental image for concrete words.
As what is mentioned in Zheng 2009, Ainsworth emphasizes her functional taxonomy of multiple external representations. She proposes that every
representation has different functional roles for learning and support knowledge differently.
She categorizes these roles into three groups; First, visual and verbal representations may have complementary roles in instructions by
facilitating different cognitive processes, serving different learning objectives, or addressing individual representational preferences of
different learners. Second, they can constrain interpretations and guide
learners’ reasoning about a domain. Third, visual and verbal representations together might be suited to foster deeper understanding
19 than what could be achieved by using just one representational format as
cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 77. Thus, Ainsworth’s taxonomy supports the presence of these roles in order
to contribute to learning. Then, the contribution of the roles is expected to give any positive influence towards learners. However, if one of the representations
does not contribute to learning, it should be deleted. Regarding to the information retention in a memory, Paivio 1990 argues
that in a dual coding theory, high imagery items readily evoke nonverbal imagery and that imagined representations are served as supplementary memory codes for
item retrieval along with the verbal code elicited directly by words p. 159. In other words, we can conclude that this dual coding of information which is based
on a single input representation is more likely to occur for pictures instead of words. This picture-s
uperiority effect is also supported by Baggett’s bushiness hypothesis. As cited in Zheng 2008, p. 72, Baggett states,
“knowledge acquired from visual rather than verbal external representations will be better accessible in
a memory because the respective nodes in the memory share more associations with other
nodes in the semantic network”. From this statement, visual concepts are considered bushier than verbal concepts and more salient in the memory.
Moreover, this theory is also in line with Anderson and Bower 1973; he states that memories for some verbal information is enhanced if a relevant visual is also
presented or if the learners can imagine a visual image to go along with the verbal information. Likewise, visual information can often be enhanced when it is paired
with relevant verbal information, whether real- world or imagined”. Therefore, we
20 can conclude that the existence of visual and verbal representations together may
be suited to enhance the information retention in the memory.
2.1.6 A Compare and Contrast Strategy
Comparing and contrasting methods will put students at ease to differentiate and understand any given materials. There are many benefits that can
be acquired through this teaching method. Silver 2010, p. 7 has mentioned that comparing and contrasting can
strengthen students’ memories, develop higher- order thinking skill, increase students’ comprehensions, enhance students’ writing
in the content areas, and develop students’ habits of mind. First, a compare and contrast strategy
attempts to strengthen students’ ability in remembering key contents of any information they got by focusing the
students ’ thinking in analyzing pairs of ideas. Second, this strategy can develop
higher-order thinking skill since it has a role as a practical and easy-to-use introduction to higher-order thinking. Third, a compare and contrast enhances
comprehension by highlighting any important details, making abstract ideas more concrete, and reducing any confusion between related concepts. Fourth, the
strategy can enhance students’ writing in the content areas by providing a simple structure that helps them to organize information and develop their ideas with
greater clarity and precision. The last, using a compare and contrast strategy in the classroom will help students to develop five of 16 habits of mind which are:
thinking flexibly, thinking about thinking metacognition, striving for accuracy, applying past knowledge to new situations, and thinking and communicating with
clarity and precision. Thus, Silver’s theory of a compare and contrast strategy
21 above can help the researcher to support the use of picture comparison interactive
medium as an aid in learning near-synonyms.
2.1.7 Multimedia
Mayer 2005 defines multimedia learning as an action of learning from words spoken or printed text and pictures illustrations, photos, maps, or
graphs. Further, Mayer 2009 argues that a cognitive theory of multimedia learning centers on an idea that learners attempt to build meaningful connections
between words and pictures and that they learn more deeply than they could have with words or pictures alone.
According to Mayer and Moreno 1998, cognitive theory of multimedia learning is based on three assumptions. Those are dual-channel, limited capacity,
and active processing assumption. The dual-channel assumption is that the working memory has auditory and
visual channels based on Baddeley’s 1986 theory of working memory and Paivio’s 1990 dual coding theory. Second, the
limited capacity assumption which is based on Sweller’s 1988 cognitive load
theory states that each subsystem of a working memory has a limited capacity. The third assumption is the active processing assumption which proposes that
people could construct knowledge in a meaningful way if they pay attention to any relevant material and organize it into a coherent material.
Optimally designed multimedia learning may help learners to reduce cognitive loads, facilitate mental representations, and aid schema acquisition. As
what has been mentioned in Sorden 2005, Mayer 2010a argues that meaningful PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
22 learning from words and pictures happens when learners engage in five cognitive
processes. The cognitive processes are selecting relevant words for processing in
verbal working memory, selecting relevant images for processing in visual working memory, organizing selected words into a verbal model,
organizing selected images into a pictorial model, and integrating the verbal and pictorial representations with each other and with prior
knowledge p. 54.
These five cognitive processes later will determine which information will be selected and which knowledge will be retrieved from the long-term memory.
Then, the information will be integrated to construct a new knowledge. The cognitive processes will also take a part in determining which bits of the new
knowledge are transferred to the long-term memory. Knowledge which is constructed in the working memory is transferred to the long-term memory
through the process of encoding Mayer, as cited in Sorden, 2005. Furthermore, Mayer 2009 identifies the following twelve multimedia
instructional principles. Those are: 1 Coherence principle: People learn better when extraneous material is excluded rather than included; 2 Signaling principle:
People learn better when cues that highlight the organization of the essential material are added; 3 Redundancy Principle: People learn better from graphics
and narrations than from graphics, narrations, and printed texts; 4 Spatial Contiguity Principle: People learn better when corresponding words and pictures
are placed near each other rather than far from each other on a page or screen; 5 Temporal Contiguity Principle: People learn better when corresponding words
and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively; 6 Segmenting Principle: People learn better from a multimedia lesson which is presented in user-
23 paced segments rather than as a continuous unit; 7 Pre-training Principle: People
could learn deeper from a multimedia message when they receive pre-training in the names and characteristics of the key components; 8 Modality Principle:
People learn better from graphics and narrations than from graphics and printed texts; 9 Multimedia Principle: People learn better from words and pictures than
from words alone; 10 Personalization Principle: People learn better from a multimedia presentation when the words are in a conversational style rather than
in a formal style; 11 Voice Principle: People learn better when the words in a multimedia message are spoken by friendly human voice rather than machine
voice; 12 Image Principle: People do not necessarily learn more deeply from a multimedia presentation when the speaker’s image is on the screen rather than not
on the screen. Despite of those principles, what is important is that the multimedia
instructional design remains focused on the concepts to be learned, rather than trying too much to entertain. Too many appealing things may make the working
memory overloaded before the learners even get to the concept of the learning. Mayer 2009 asserts that an effective instructional design depends on techniques
for reducing extraneous processing, managing essential processing, and fostering generative processing.
2.1.8 Computer-Assisted Language Learning CALL
Every human comes with many differences. Those differences can be in the matter of ethnic origins, languages, habits, or even food preferences. In
addition, almost everyone in society may not learn through the same way. Every PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
24 individual may have his or her own learning styles and preferences that may affect
learning environments. Soo defines a learning style here as “an individual’s
natural, habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills” as cited in Egbert Hanson-Smith, 1999, p. 290.
Further, Soo also notes t hat “differences learning styles among learners may affect
the learning environment by either supporting or inhibiting their intentional cognition and active engagement” p. 289.
A study conducted by Ehrman and Oxford 1990 reveals that more than 20 styles have been identified and every individual can have 6-14 strongly
preferred styles at the same time. These styles can be categorized into four broad domains which are cognitive, affective, perceptual, and physiological as cited in
Egbert Smith-Hanson, 1990, p. 293. Perceptual domain focuses on the different ways that learners take and give out information. According to Fleming
2012, p. 1, there are four sensory modalities that are preferred by students to learn information. Those are visual, aural, read or write, and kinesthetic. Visual
learners prefer to learn by using any depiction of information in videos, graphics, pictures, charts, diagrams, posters, and any other visualization. Aural learners
prefer to learn any information which is spoken or heard. Read or write learners have strong reverence for words. The last, kinesthetic learners are the ones who
have perceptual preferences which are related to the use of experiences and practices. Besides, multi-modal learners can have a preference of two or more
styles of learning. They can switch or mix different modes of learning. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
