Basiccontrastive pronouns Continued reference to participants

uses the ‘unexpected alternative’ pronoun yeki to indicate that he will trick the first participant, thereby contradicting the statement that no one would be able to do so. None of these pronouns is necessary for participant reference; each could be removed and the intended referents would still be clear. Fuliiru 45 Muguma anabwira uwabo kwo yehe ndaaye uwabo mundu uwangamúteba. One told his fellow that HE there is no fellow person who would trick him. Naye uwabo anamúbwira kwo yeki anagamúteba. And he fellow told him that HE would trick him. ‘A certain person told his companion that as for him [contrastive] there was no other person who would be able to trick him. That fellow he also [additive] told him that HE [unexpected alternative] would be the one who would trick him.’ Fuliiru also has ‘exclusive’ pronominal forms nyene and ngwa which denote ‘selfselves to the exclusion of others’; that is, ‘he himself’. There is not space to describe all the pronouns in each language, so I shall discuss one or two examples of each functional category and attempt some generalizations.

4.4.1 Basiccontrastive pronouns

The ‘basic’ independent pronouns are those forms which are felt to have the least amount of specific semantic content compared with other independent pronominal forms. However, in almost all the languages in this study, these forms are also used in a contrastive sense; that is, they indicate one referent to the exclusion of other potential referents whether explicitly mentioned or merely implied. This is also true for basic independent pronouns in other eastern Bantu languages, such as yeye in Swahili, íyé in Chewa Bresnan and Mchombo 1987:774, and o in Kuria Cammenga 2004:214–215. In the following Malila example, the narrator expresses contrast between himself—with the 1 SG pronoun ɨne—and a child. Malila Eaton 2015b:20 46 Ɨne ɨn-taa-ɨmvw-a khaala, fwanɨ ʉmwana ʉla ay- ɨmvw-a. 1 SG 1 SG - NEG . P 1-hear- FV no gosh 1.child 1. DEM _ DIST 3 SG . P 1-hear- FV ‘I did not hear at all, but gosh that child heard.’ The ‘basic’ independent pronouns do not always express contrast, however. In the following Malila example, the 1 SG pronoun ɨne functions as an external topic, leaving the NP ʉmwoyo ‘heart’ in subject position. No contrast—explicit or implied—is associated with this use of the 1 SG pronoun Eaton 2015b:21, suggesting that contrast may be an implicature rather than encoded as part of the semantic content of the pronoun. Malila Eaton 2015b:20 47 Pe ɨne ʉmwoyo wʉ-kha-and-a ku-dund-a sana, then 1 SG 3.heart 3- NARR -start- FV INF -beat- FV DEG we ɨn-kʉ-sɨɨbh-a ku-ti-ishi fwanɨ ishi ʉwamwɨtʉ ʉnʉ, when 1 SG - PRES -think- FV INF -say-thus gosh now 1.companion 1. DEM _ PROX pe bha- tʉ-lem-a ni bangi. then 3 PL . P 1-1 PL -catch- FV COM 9.marijuana ‘Then me my heart started to beat a lot, when I thought that gosh now this companion, they have caught us with marijuana.’ In the following Kwaya example the pronoun weeki indicates a change of subject from the father to the son, but not necessarily a contrast between the father’s actions and those of the son. Three sentences later in the text, weeki is used three times in succession to indicate a change of subject from the father to the son. Kwaya Odom 2015:25 48 Baasi n-aa-gend-ag-a kutyo weeki k-e-emb-a. so NARR -3 SG -go- HAB - FV thus 3 SG PRES -3 SG -sing- FV ‘So, he the father went along in this way, while he the son sang.’ It is notable that there is greater variety between languages in the forms of basic independent pronouns than there is for other pronominal expressions. The forms umwene in Bena and ʉ́weéne in Malila resemble the exclusiveemphatic forms which include the suffix -ene in most other languages. This may indicate that the basic pronouns in Bena and Malila have developed out of emphatic forms through a process of “semantic bleaching”. Similarly, weeki in Kwaya resembles weki in Kabwa and yeki in Fuliiru, both of which have more specific semantic content, i.e. emphatic and ‘unexpected alternative’ respectively. There can also be considerable formal variation between different person and number forms of the basic pronouns. This is particularly clear in the Makonde paradigm Leach 2015:53 below: Table 3: Basic pronominal forms in Makonde 1 SG nangu 2 SG wako 3 SG nae 1 PL wetu 2 PL mwenu 3 PL vanavo

4.4.2 Additive pronouns