A TRANSLATION ANALYSIS OF SEXUAL SLANGS FOUND IN THE FILM “THE GURU”
FOUND IN THE FILM “THE GURU” THESIS
Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Sarjana Degree at
English Department of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
By: ALBERTUS AGUNG YUWONO C0303007 ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA 2010
A TRANSLATION ANALYSIS OF SEXUAL SLANGS FOUND IN THE FILM “THE GURU”
By: ALBERTUS AGUNG YUWONO C0303007
Approved to be examined before the Board of Examiners of English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
Thesis Supervisor:
Dr. Djatmika, M. A NIP. 196707261993021001
Head of English Department
Dr. Djatmika, M. A NIP. 196707261993021001
A TRANSLATION ANALYSIS OF SEXUAL SLANGS FOUND IN THE FILM “THE GURU”
By: ALBERTUS AGUNG YUWONO C0303007
Accepted and Approved by the Board of Examiners of English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
Chairperson Agus Dwi Priyanto, S.S., MCALL (...............................) NIP. 197408182000121001
Secretary Dyah Ayu Nila Khrisna, S.S., M. Hum. (...............................) NIP. 198302112006042001
First Examiner Dr. Djatmika, M. A. (...............................) NIP. 196707261993021001
Second Examiner Ida Kusuma Dewi, S.S., M. A. (...............................) NIP. 197105251998022001
Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
Drs. Sudarno, M. A. NIP. 195303141985061001
PRONOUNCEMENT
I state whole-heartedly that I myself made this thesis entitled A Translation Analysis of Sexual Slangs found in the film “The Guru”. It is neither a plagiarism, nor made by others. Things related to other people’s work are written in quotation and included in bibliography.
If it is then proved that I cheat, I am ready to take the responsibility, including withdrawal of my academic title.
Surakarta, June 2010
The researcher
Albertus Agung Yuwono
MOTTO
“You’ve got to get to the stage in life where going for it is more important than winning or losing”
Arthur Ashe
“Enjoy the journey, enjoy ever moment,
and quit stop worrying about winning or losing”
Matt Biondi
“Whether you're winning or losing, it is important to always be yourself
You can't change because of the circumstances around you”
Cotton Fitzsimmons
“Winning isn't everything to me, but it's a close second. Losing isn't something that I can just brush off and fake a smile to hide my frustration. It's that will and determination that I hope will get me where I want to go”
Dale Earnhardt, Jr.
“If you can react the same way to winning and losing, that is a big accomplishment. That quality is important because it stays with you the rest of your life”
Chris Evert
DEDICATION
I whole heartedly dedicate this thesis to:
M om and D ad, for the everlasting patience and understanding
M y L ittle Brother, for the jokes, and peacef ul guitar melody
Those who have a special place in my heart
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, I thank my God, Jesus Christ, for the blessing and guidance, so that I can finally complete this thesis. I also want to express my gratitude to some people around me for their unflagging supports during my thesis completion. My deepest gratitude goes to:
1. The Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Drs. Sudarno, M. A., for approving this thesis.
2. The Head of English Department and also my thesis supervisor, Dr. Djatmika, M. A. I thank him for his patience and wisdom during the consultation.
3. Prof. Drs. M. R. Nababan, M. Ed, M.A., Ph. D, my lecturer and academic
supervisor. I thank him so much for teaching me more about translation.
4. Ida Kusuma Dewi, S.S., M. A., for giving me valuable suggestions and inputs for my thesis.
5. The guest lecturer from America, Sarah Pearsall, M. TESOL. I thank her very much for her assistance in validating my data.
6. Dyah Ayu Nila Khrisna, S.S, M. Hum. I thank her for being my rater and lecturer and at the same time, a good sister for me.
7. My other two raters, Ardianna Nuraeni, S.S, M. Hum. and Bayu Budiharjo, S. S., for being so attentive and cooperative in completing the assessment of my questionnaires.
8. All lecturers of UNS English Department. I thank them for every lesson, experience, and knowledge that they have shared.
9. My beloved family, Mom and Dad and also my little Brother. I will not be able to finish my final project without their prayers.
10. Sr. Birgitta Ginung, OSU and the big family of Regina Pacis Junior High School. I should say ‘thank you’ for her prayers and good wishes. May God bless her and the Ursuline family.
11. Mr. Hartoto’s family, especially for Mrs. Heni Kartini, S. Pd., M. Pd., for being a nice and lovely mother for me. She never gets bored to remind and support me to complete my thesis soon. Thanks a lot, Mommy!
12. Mrs. Naning Susilo’s family, for providing me with such comfortable boarding house where I can pleasantly continue writing my thesis and finally complete it. I would also like to express my gratitude to “Xto” who has never stopped motivating me to finish my thesis. Be ready for the coming vacation with The Susilos!
13. Mr. Slamet Gunandar’s family, especially for Awan “Krebo” for being a nice pal and at the same time, my fashion consultant, for recommending me what to wear and not to wear. Thanks a lot, Brother! Good luck with Enpi!
14. Groovies (Gideon, Syarqi, Salman, Marisa, Ira, Ari, Arum, and Ganing), for being the first comfortable community to share and for the never-ending friendship. “True friendship is like sound health; the value of it is seldom known until it be lost”- Charles Caleb Colton.
15. All of my friends at UNS English Department 2003, especially those who take translation class. I cannot mention their names one by one here, but I thank them for whatever we have ever shared during the class.
16. Voca Erudita Student Choir of Sebelas Maret University, as a pleasant place for me to sing and learn how to solve a problem. There are so many happy and sad experiences at VE which I hope they can turn me into a wiser, better, and more mature individual. Let me also express my gratitude to each member of the beloved choir that I cannot mention one by one here. Every memory I have with them will always stay and live in my heart.
17. Brother Bernard T. R. Sirait, for the unconditional support and encouragement to pursue my interests. Thanks also go to Karmelita Agni Ayu Pratiwi, for the chance she gives me to have her as my cute, funny, and sometimes, insane little sister. “Ipank” Jati K., for believing in me to be his big brother and as a place to discuss any unsolvable problems.
18. Everyone who has ever drawn his/her colour on my life canvas. Last but not least, I realize that this thesis is far from being perfect. Therefore, I look forward for any supporting criticism and suggestions.
Surakarta, June 2010
Albertus Agung Yuwono
ABSTRACT
Albertus Agung Yuwono. C0303007. 2010. A Translation Analysis of Sexual Slangs found in the film “THE GURU”. Thesis: English Department, Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta.
This research was conducted to know the types of sexual slangs, the translation strategies to translate them, and the effects of the strategies to the quality of the translation in terms of accuracy and acceptability.
This is a descriptive qualitative research and is designed as a single- embedded case study. The researcher used both total sampling technique to collect
the primary data and purposive sampling technique to gain the secondary data from the three raters. There are two methods of data collection in this research,
namely: (1) content analysis done by selecting all dialogues in the film containing sexual slangs (34 data), and (2) questionnaires distributed to the three raters which are in the forms of closed and open format.
The result of the research shows that there are four types of sexual slangs in the film THE GURU, namely (1) sexual slangs referring to sexual organs (10 data or 29.4%), (2) sexual slangs referring to sexual processes (12 data or 35.3%), (3) sexual slangs referring to sexual activities (7 data or 20.6%), and (4) sexual slangs referring to people and their psychological characteristics (5 data or 15.7%). Dealing with the translation strategies, the researcher found four translation strategies, namely: (1) translation using words or phrases of similar referential and expressive meaning (8 data or 23.5%), (2) translation using words or phrases of similar referential but dissimilar expressive meaning (19 data or 55.9%), (3) translation using words or phrases of dissimilar referential and expressive meaning (3 data or 8.8%), (4) translation using loan words (4 data or 11.8%). The most dominant strategy used by the translator is translation using words or phrases of similar referential but dissimilar expressive meaning, while the strategy which is rarely used by the translator is translation using words or phrases of dissimilar referential and expressive meaning.
Regarding the level of accuracy of the translation, the researcher found that from the total 34 data, there are 28 data or 82.4% considered to be accurate, 3 data or 8.8% considered to be less accurate, and 3 data or 8.8% considered to be inaccurate. The average of the mean for accuracy is 2.67 meaning that the sexual slangs translation is accurate. The strategies used by the translator producing high level of accuracy are (1) translation using words or phrases of similar referential and expressive meaning, and (2) translation using loan words, because both of the strategies result in 100% accurate translation. However, both of the two strategies are rarely used by the translator. Meanwhile, the strategy producing poor level of accuracy is translation using words or phrases of dissimilar referential and expressive meaning which has only 3 data or 8.8% and all the three are considered inaccurate.
With regard to the level of acceptability, the researcher found that from the total 34 data, there are 27 data or 79.4% considered to be acceptable, 7 data or 20.6% considered to be less acceptable, and 0 data or 0% considered to be unacceptable. The average of the mean for acceptability is 2.77 meaning that the sexual slangs translation is acceptable. The strategy used by the translator With regard to the level of acceptability, the researcher found that from the total 34 data, there are 27 data or 79.4% considered to be acceptable, 7 data or 20.6% considered to be less acceptable, and 0 data or 0% considered to be unacceptable. The average of the mean for acceptability is 2.77 meaning that the sexual slangs translation is acceptable. The strategy used by the translator
data or 89.5% are considered to be acceptable and 2 data or 10.5% are considered to be less acceptable. Meanwhile, the strategy producing poor level of
acceptability is translation using words or phrases of dissimilar referential and expressive meaning which covers only 3 data or 8.8% and all of them are
considered to be less acceptable. Translating sexual slangs is a cultural bond activity requiring not only mastering both the source language and the target language but also the cultures of both languages in order to produce high quality of translation.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
Nowadays, that the existence of films in our society is very big cannot be denied by everyone in this world. People around the world have ever watched films, at least once during their lives, as films cannot be separated from people’s life. This is in line with Allen and Gomery who state that film is a reflection of social values, interests, and social phenomena and made between social context (1993:156).
Film is very popular almost in every country in the world, including in Indonesia. Many films in Indonesia come from foreign countries and use English in the dialogue. However, not all Indonesian people can understand or speak English well. This condition, of course, has created problems for those who do not have the ability to understand English. Therefore, a film translation is needed to solve the problem, so that people can easily understand and enjoy the film.
Subtitling is one of the solutions for the problem. The dialogue of the foreign film is translated into Indonesian and inserted at the bottom of the screen. In doing it, a translator cannot only transfer the message of the source language into the target language, but she/he must pay attention to the cultural background of the target audience. Schaffner in Baker says that cultures may have different conventions, and trans-cultural text production may require substitution of elements of the source text by element judged more appropriate to the function target text is to serve (2001: 4). Besides, there are more factors that a translator Subtitling is one of the solutions for the problem. The dialogue of the foreign film is translated into Indonesian and inserted at the bottom of the screen. In doing it, a translator cannot only transfer the message of the source language into the target language, but she/he must pay attention to the cultural background of the target audience. Schaffner in Baker says that cultures may have different conventions, and trans-cultural text production may require substitution of elements of the source text by element judged more appropriate to the function target text is to serve (2001: 4). Besides, there are more factors that a translator
We can easily find many translation products that contain sexual slangs, for example, a subtitle of a film. It is obvious that film has a great number of audiences, as stated by Gottlieb in Baker (2001: 244) that since 1929 the first sound films have reached an international audience. Not only adults but also children watch film on television every day, so that it is expected that the translation of sexual slangs in a film will be appropriate for the target audience. Therefore, a translator must apply certain strategies in order to make the translation accurate, acceptable, and readable for Indonesian people without abandoning the value and culture of Indonesian.
This research was conducted to find out the types of sexual slangs found in the film THE GURU, the translation strategies used by the translator to translate sexual slangs, and the effects of the strategies to the quality of the translation in terms of accuracy and acceptability. Below are some examples of sexual slangs translation: Example 1
Context of Situation Ramu starts his first shooting of his film. Peaches, the make up girl (actually, she is a transvestite) is with him in the make up room. Suddenly, she touches Ramu’s penis and it makes Ramu get mad. Here, Peaches tells him what film Ramu will act.
Peaches: Giving Mr. Happy a shine. Menghangatkan Tn. Happy.
09/A/13:42
The word Mr. Happy above does not merely mean a man who is always happy or glad, or even a man whose name is Mr. Happy, but it has a sexual The word Mr. Happy above does not merely mean a man who is always happy or glad, or even a man whose name is Mr. Happy, but it has a sexual
Context of Situation After knowing the truth from Peaches, Ramu continues his shooting. As the film director, Dwain explains the story of the film. During the shooting, Ramu finds many difficulties, especially when he cannot reach an erection. In fact, he has to reach it to be able to do a sexual intercourse with Sharrona, his partner in the movie.
Dwain: You see her, you screw her, we go home. Kau melihatnya, bercinta, lalu kita pulang.
11/A/15:43
The site of www.sex-lexis.com notes that screw is a sexual slang referring to sexual intercourse. Screw is then translated into bercinta. Both ST and TT have similar propositional meanings in a way that they both refer to similar thing in the real word. Somehow, they have different degree of expressiveness since screw is more vulgar than bercinta. However, the translation is still accurate since the source text is translated using the term which has the same referent in the target text. It is also acceptable in the target text culture, as bercinta is considered not too vulgar. Example 3
Context of Situation Sharrona agrees to be Ramu’s teacher and they start their lesson of sex at Sharrona’s apartment.
Sharrona:
So the way I look at it is...my pussy is the door to my soul. Jadi menurutku…alat kelaminku adalah pintu ke jiwaku.
26/A/38:18
Pussy is a slang for vagina ( www.sex-lexis.com ). Pussy is then translated into alat kelamin which is the direct term to refer to genitalia, both penis and vagina . Translating pussy into alat kelamin is accurate in a way that both terms refer to vagina. The translation is also acceptable since alat kelamin is a common word to refer to genitalia.
Based on these premises, the researcher is interesting in investigating the translation of sexual slangs found in the film THE GURU.
B. Research Limitation
This study is limited to sexual slangs found in the film THE GURU and the Indonesian subtitle. The focus of analysis includes the types of the sexual slangs, the translation strategies used by the translator, and the effects of the strategies to the translation quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability.
C. Problem Statements
Considering the research background, the problems are formulated as follows:
1. What are the types of sexual slangs found in the film THE GURU?
2. What strategies are the translator used to translate sexual slangs?
3. What are the effects of the strategies to the translation quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability?
D. Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:
1. To find out the types of sexual slangs found in the film THE GURU.
2. To find out the strategies used by the translator to translate sexual slangs.
3. To find out the effects of the strategies to the translation quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability.
E. Research Benefits
It is expected that the study will be beneficial to:
1. Translators The activity of translation is not only transferring the message from the source text into the target text, but also considering the cultural background of the target readers/audiences. In order to produce a good translation, a translator must have an ability of speaking at least two languages, mastering translation theories, and knowing the cultural background of the target readers/audiences. From this research, it is expected that translators will get an input or additional knowledge, so that they will pay more attention and be more careful to translate sexual slangs.
2. Lecturers Many people are reluctant to talk about sexual matters since these kinds of topics are considered impolite and sometimes, rude. Actually, some of them use these words unconsciously while they are talking to other persons in their daily conversation. We can also find sexual slang in many literary works and popular products nowadays. From this research, it is expected that lecturers 2. Lecturers Many people are reluctant to talk about sexual matters since these kinds of topics are considered impolite and sometimes, rude. Actually, some of them use these words unconsciously while they are talking to other persons in their daily conversation. We can also find sexual slang in many literary works and popular products nowadays. From this research, it is expected that lecturers
3. Students and other researchers Conducting a research to investigate the translation of sexual slangs is an interesting activity since this topic brings a challenge for the researcher himself. From this research, it is expected that this research will inspire other researchers to conduct a further research on translation of sexual slangs and take this research as an input or a reference.
F. Thesis Organization
The thesis organization of the research is as follows: CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION which consists of Research Background, Research Limitation, Problem Statements, Research Objectives, Research Benefits, and Thesis Organization.
CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW which consists of Definition of Translation, Meanings in Translation, Problems in Translating, Translation Strategies, Translation Quality Assessment, Slang, Sexual Slang, Subtitling, and Summary of THE GURU film.
CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY which consists of Research Type and Design, Data and Source of Data,
Sampling Technique, Method of Data Collection, Technique of Data Analysis, and Research Procedures.
CHAPTER IV : RESEARCH FINDING AND DISCUSSION which consists of Introduction, Research Finding, and Discussion.
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Definition of Translation
Many definitions of translation have been proposed by some experts. Newmark (1981: 7) states translation as “a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”. The above definition only focuses on how to replace the meaning of a written message or statement from a source text into a target text. Another definition is given by Brislin (1976:1) who states that “translation is the general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are in written or oral form...”. From Brislin’s definition about translation, it can be referred that translation is not only in the written form, but also in the oral form.
Nida and Taber state that “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in term of meaning and secondly in term of style” (1974:14). In line with the previous definition, Roger T. Bell (1991: 5) states that translation is the expression in another language or target language of what has been expressed in another source language preserving semantic and stylistic equivalence. From both of the definitions, it can be said that the equivalence existing in the target language is not only in term of the meaning (semantic), but also in term of the style of the source text.
Based on the definitions above, it can be concluded that translation is a process of transferring a written or oral message from one language (source text) to another language (target text) in terms of the meaning and the style.
B. Meanings in Translation
According to Cruse (in Baker 1992: 13), there are four types of lexical meaning in words and utterances, namely: (1) propositional meaning, (2) expressive meaning, (3) presupposed meaning, and (4) evoked meaning.
1. Propositional meaning Baker (1992:13) states that “The propositional meaning of a word or an utterance arises from the
relation between it and what it refers to or describes in a real or imaginary world, as conceived by the speakers of the particular language to which the word or utterance belongs. It is this type of meaning which provides the basis on which we can judge an utterance as true or false”.
For example, Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2005 gives the definition of the word stud as a man considered to be sexually active or good at sex. It will not be appropriate to use the word stud to refer to a woman who is sexually active or good at sex.
2. Expressive meaning “Expressive meaning cannot be judged as true or false. This is because expressive meaning relates to the speaker’s feelings or attitude rather than to what words and utterances refer to.” (Baker 1992: 13). The difference between the word fuck and copulate does not lie in their propositional meanings, but in their expressive meanings. Both fuck and copulate refer to a sexual intercourse 2. Expressive meaning “Expressive meaning cannot be judged as true or false. This is because expressive meaning relates to the speaker’s feelings or attitude rather than to what words and utterances refer to.” (Baker 1992: 13). The difference between the word fuck and copulate does not lie in their propositional meanings, but in their expressive meanings. Both fuck and copulate refer to a sexual intercourse
3. Presupposed meaning “Presupposed meaning arises from co-occurrence restrictions, i.e. restrictions on what other words or expressions we expect to see before or after a particular lexical unit.” (Baker 1992: 14). There are two types of restrictions, namely:
a. Selectional restrictions Selectional restriction is a function of propositional meaning of word. For example, we expect a human (male) subject for the adjective masculine (for example, masculine boy), and an inanimate one for the adjective erect (for example, erect penis).
b. Collocational restrictions These restrictions are semantically arbitrary restrictions which do not follow logically from the propositional meaning of a word, and because they are arbitrary, they tend to show more variation across languages. For example, teeth are brushed in English, but in German and Italian they are polished . In Polish they are washed, and in Russian they are cleaned (Baker 1992: 14-15).
4. Evoked meaning Evoked meaning arises from two types of variation: dialect and register. Andersson and Trudgill state that slang is neither a dialect nor a register. A further explanation will be given below: 4. Evoked meaning Evoked meaning arises from two types of variation: dialect and register. Andersson and Trudgill state that slang is neither a dialect nor a register. A further explanation will be given below:
A dialect is a variety of language which has currency within a specific community or group of speakers. It may be classified based on one of the following bases:
1. Geographical, for example: the difference between American English and British English in naming lift and elevator. (Baker 1992: 15)
2. Temporal, words and structures used by members of different age group within a community, or words used at different periods in the history of a language, for example: verily and really (Baker 1992: 15). In
the site of http://dictionary.reference.com/browse states that verily (at 1250) is older than really (at 1400).
line
with
Baker’s
opinion,
3. Social, words and structures used by members of different social classes, for example: the word scent and perfume. (Baker 1992: 15).
Slang refers to a general phenomenon common to the whole language community, while dialect is restricted to one region or social class within the language community (Andersson and Trudgill, 1990: 73). Further, they state that slang is not a dialect, because slang is used to express sense of belonging to a particular group within a community which is not specific to any geographic location. For example, English has the slang cool and is spoken in English-speaking countries such as America and England at the same time.
b. Register According to Baker (1992: 15), register is a variety of a language that a language user considers appropriate to a specific situation, and that register variation arises from variations in the following:
1. Field of discourse “This is an abstract term for ‘what is going on’ that is relevant to the
speaker’s choice of linguistic items. Different linguistic choices are made by different speakers depending on what kind of action other than the immediate action of speaking they see themselves as participating in” (Baker 1992: 16)
2. Tenor of discourse This is an abstract term for the relationships between the people taking part in the discourse. (Baker: 1992: 16)
3. Mode of discourse This is an abstract term for the role that the language is playing (speech, essay, lecture, instructions) and for its medium of transmission either written or spoken. (Baker 1992: 16)
Andersson and Trudgill define register as a technical term from linguistics simply refers to vocabulary and other linguistic characteristics associated with particular topics and activities (1990: 171). Doctors and lawyers may have their own registers (technical terms) that can be understood by those who are in the same professions and that they use the registers in a specific situation, for instance while they are working. This will be different from slang which has no limitation of specific situations or professions. However, slang may borrow from registers. Bump off, knock off, to ice meaning kill are borrowed from criminal registers.
Besides the above four meanings in translation, there is also one more meaning called referential meaning. Eugene Albert Nida and Charles Russell Taber in their book, The Theory and Practice of Translation (1974: 56), define referential meaning as the meaning of the words as symbols which refer to objects, events, abstracts, and relations.
C. Problems in Translating
Some problems may occur during the translation activity. One problem usually faced by a translator is to find the appropriate equivalence in the target language. Baker (1992: 21) mentions some common types of non-equivalence at word level, namely:
1. Culture-specific concepts The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concepts in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or even a type of food. For example, chicken tikka masala is a name of Indian food found in the film THE GURU. The food contains culture-specific term which has no equivalence in Indonesian.
2. The source-language concept is not lexicalized in the target language The source-language word may express a concept which is known in the target culture but simply not lexicalized, that is not ‘allocated’ a target- language word to express it, for example, oral sex is known in Indonesian culture. However, oral sex is not lexicalized in Indonesia but it is borrowed into mengoral or melakukan oral seks.
3. The source-language word is semantically complex The source-language word may be semantically complex. This is a fairly common problem in translation. Words do not have to be morphologically complex to be semantically complex (Bolinger and Sears in Baker 1992: 22), for example, the word petting. Petting is a sexual activity done by repeatedly rubbing one’s genital into others’ for sexual pleasure and may also be done by touching, squeezing, kissing others’ body part, but does not include sexual intercourse.
4. The source and target languages make different distinctions in meaning “The target language may make more or fewer distinctions in meaning than the
source language. What one language regards as an important distinction in meaning may be the otherwise in another language. For example, Indonesian makes a distinction between going out in the rain without the knowledge that it is raining (kehujanan) and going out in the rain with the knowledge that it is raining (hujan-hujanan)” (Baker, 1992:22).
5. The target language lacks a superordinate The target language may have specific words (hyponyms) but no general word (superordinate) to head the semantic field. For example, Russian does not have
a ready equivalence of the word facilities, although Russian has some words that can be thought as facilities, such as sredsiva peredvizheniya (means of tranpsort), and neobkhodimye pomeschcheniya (essential accomodation) (Baker, 1992: 23).
6. The target language lacks a specific term (hyponym) More commonly, languages tend to have general words (superordinates) but
lack specific ones (hyponyms), since each language makes only those distinctions in meaning which seem relevant to its particular environment. For example, if we have English as the source language and Indonesian as the lack specific ones (hyponyms), since each language makes only those distinctions in meaning which seem relevant to its particular environment. For example, if we have English as the source language and Indonesian as the
7. Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective “Physical perspective may be of more importance in one language than it is in
another. Physical perspective has to do with where things or people are in relation to one another or to a place, as expressed in pairs of words such as come/go, take/bring, arrive/depart, and so on” (ibid.: 23).
For example, Javanese has six equivalences for the word give, depending on who gives to whom: maringke, ngaturke, nyaosi, ngekeki, nyukani, and menehi .
8. Differences in expressive meaning There may be a target-language word which has the same propositional meaning as the source-language word, but it may have a different expressive meaning. For example, the sexual slang screw is translated into bercinta in Indonesian. The word bercinta may have the similar propositional meaning as the word screw, but it has dissimilar (less) expressive meaning than the word screw .
9. Differences in form “There is often no equivalent in the target language for a particular form in the
source text. Certain suffixes and prefixes which convey propositional and other types of meaning in English often have no direct equivalent in other languages. English has many couplets such as employer/employee, trainer/trainee, and payer/payee…it is most important for translators to understand the contribution that affixes make to the meaning of words and
expressions…to coin new words for various reasons… (Baker 1992: 24).
For example, greenish book does not merely mean buku hijau, but it means buku yang berwarna kehijau-hijauan (less green).
10. Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms Even when a particular form does have a ready equivalence in the target language, there may be a difference in the frequency with which it is used or the purpose for which it is used. For example, English has many continuous – ing forms which are often used to bind clauses (such as in: She is singing, he is crying, father is walking, etc) than other languages. Rendering –ing form in
a German, Danish, or Swedish target text would result in unnatural style (Baker, 1992: 25).
11. The use of loan words in the source text The use of loan words in the source text poses a special problem in translation, since their meanings are often lost in translation because it is not always possible to find a loan word with the same meaning in the target language. For example, the slang duck is borrowed in Thai, but it has slight difference in meaning from the slang duck in America. Duck in Thai is usually used to describe a transvestite prostitute in Thailand. Duck is used to differ Thai female prostitutes (chick) from Thai transvestites, who are well-known to have
a sexy body (they also have boobs) and beautiful face like a real woman. Meanwhile, duck in America means a male prostitute or a gigolo.
D. Translation Strategies
There are some definitions for translation strategies. Krings (1986:18) defines translation strategy as “translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a concrete translation task.”
While, Loescher (1991:8) defines translation strategy as “a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it.”
Dealing with translation strategies, Baker (1992: 26) proposes several strategies that can be used, especially in translating non-equivalence at word level. Those strategies are as follows:
1. Translation by a more general word (superordinate) This is one of the commonest strategies for dealing with many types of non- equivalence, particularly in the area of propositional meaning (ibid.: 26). In this strategy, a translator changes the source text word by finding its more general word in the target text. Example
ST: So the way I look at it is...my pussy is the door to my soul. TT: Jadi menurutku…alat kelaminku adalah pintu ke jiwaku.
The word pussy meaning female’s genital organ is translated using its superordinate into alat kelamin.
2. Translation by a more neutral/less expressive word This strategy deals with finding the equivalent word of the source text in the target text which is considered to be more neutral/less expressive. Applying this strategy may reduce or even remove the expressive meaning of the word.
Example SL : You see her, you screw her, we go home. TL : Kau melihatnya, bercinta, lalu kita pulang.
The word screw meaning having a sexual intercourse is then translated into bercinta in Indonesian. This strategy makes the expressive meaning of the source text lost in the translation.
3. Translation by cultural substitution “This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with
target-language item which does not have the same propositional meaning but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader. The main advantage of
using this strategy is that it gives the reader a concept with which s/he can identify something familiar and appealing.” (Baker, 1992:31)
Example SL : The lovemaking art of Kama sutra is believed to be the solution of our
problem. TL : Seni bercinta Serat Centhini adalah solusi masalah kita.
Kama Sutra and Serat Centhini have different propositional meaning. Serat Centhini is used as the equivalence of Kama Sutra to give Indonesian readers
a concept with which they can identify and get the similar impact.
4. Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation Baker says that this strategy is particularly common in dealing with culture- specific items, modern concepts, and buzz words. Following the loan word with an explanation is very useful when the word in question is repeated several times in the text. Once explained, the loan word can be used on its own; the reader can understand it and is not distracted by further lengthy explanations (ibid.: 34). Example
ST : Giving Mr. Happy a shine. TT : Menghangatkan Tn. Happy.
5. Translation by paraphrase using a related word This kind of strategy tends to be used when the concept expressed by the source item is lexicalized in the target language but in a different form, and when the frequency with which a certain form is used in the source text is significantly higher than would be natural in the target language (ibid.: 37).
Example ST : The lipstick makes her performance sexier.
TT : Pewarna bibir membuat penampilannya lebih seksi.
6. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words This strategy can still be used in some contexts if the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the target language. Instead of a related word, the paraphrase may be based on modifying a superordinate or simply on unpacking the meaning of the source item, particularly if the item in question is semantically complex (ibid.: 38). Example
ST : Roni is a real stud that he made Susi come twice last night. TT : Roni benar-benar perkasa. Ia membuat Susi mencapai puncak
kenikmatan sampai dua kali tadi malam
7. Translation by omission “This strategy may sound rather drastic, but in fact, it does no harm to omit
translating a word or expression in some contexts. If the meaning conveyed by
a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy explanations, translator can and often do simply omit translating the word or expression in question” (ibid.: 40).
Example ST : What the fuck are you doing here? TT : Apa yang kau lakukan di sini?
8. Translation by illustration This strategy is a useful option if the word, which lacks an equivalent in the target language refers to a physical entity, which can be illustrated, particularly if there are restrictions on space and if the text has to remain short, concise, and to the point” (ibid.: 42). Example
ST : Unplug the cable from socket. TT : Cabut kabel dari stopkontak.
E. Translation Quality Assessment
Nababan says that assessment toward a translation is needed since it will give benefit to the translator, the publisher, and the target readers (2003: 85). This assessment should be done in terms of accuracy, acceptability, and readability.
Accuracy in translation refers to the meaning in both of the source and target text. “The essence of translation lies on the preservation of ‘meaning’ across two different languages” (House, 1977: 25). A translation is called accurate if the message of the target text reveals the same message of the source text without having distortion, addition, or deletion of the original message.
Acceptability of a translation refers to the naturalness of the translation in relation to the target language system. Before translating, a translator should firstly consider the target readers’ culture in order to produce a natural translation. Thus, a translator may in some extent reconstruct, adapt or even rewrite whatever stated in the source text, not only translate it (Dewi, 2000: 22).
Richards et al (in Nababan) states that readability of a translation refers to how easily written materials can be read and understood (2003:62). He also mentions that the level of readability depends on average sentence length, number of new words, and grammatical complexities of the language used. Meanwhile,
Nababan says that there are some factors which make the level of readability of a text become poor. They are (1) the use of new words, (2) the use of foreign and regional words, (3) the use of ambiguous words, (4) the use of foreign language sentences, (5) the use of ambiguous sentences, (6) the use of incomplete sentence, (7) the average sentence length, (8) the use of complex sentence, (9) unwell- arranged or illogical source text, (10) the other factors (2003: 64-78).
F. Slang
Lars G. Andersson and Peter Trudgill define slang as words or uses of words or expressions which are extremely informal and which are very often fashionable and therefore rather temporary-they may come into the language, be very popular, and then die out again fairly rapidly (1990: 16). Paul Roberts (in Andersson and Trudgill 1990: 69) says that slang is one of those things that everybody can recognize and nobody can define.
Meanwhile, Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter argue that an expression should be considered "true slang" if it meets at least two of these following criteria: (1) it lowers the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing, (2) the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or with a group of people who are familiar with it and use the term, (3) it is a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social status or greater responsibility, (4) it replaces a well-known conventional term (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/slang).
Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2005 gives the definition of slang as words, phrases, expressions, and usages that are casual in speech or writing, vivid, racy, or playful replacements for standard ones, are often short-lived, and Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2005 gives the definition of slang as words, phrases, expressions, and usages that are casual in speech or writing, vivid, racy, or playful replacements for standard ones, are often short-lived, and
As stated in the above definition, slang is used to exclude people outside the group. It can be referred from the definition that slang can be used as an identity whether one belongs to a certain group or not. Slang may thus contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speaker's background (Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005). Another function of slang is to make your speech vivid, colorful, and interesting (Andersson and Trudgill, 1990: 16).
Not only mention the function of slang, Andersson and Trudgill also state some characteristics of slang. The characteristics are as follows:
a. Slang is language use below the neutral stylistic level Neutral stylistic level here refers to the standard language used in the formal situation. “…slang is a relative concept. Since slang is relative, changes in neutral or formal usage will lead to changes in what is seen as slang” (Andersson and Trudgill, 1990:69). They also give some examples of slang which are nowadays considered as neutral or formal language. They are bus, bike , and phone which are actually slangy words of omnibus, bicycle, and telephone . Bus, bike, and phone are now considered to be part of neutral language. This phenomenon shows that slang changes through time. What is slang for one person, generation or situation may not be slang for another (ibid.: 70).
b. Slang is typical of informal situation Andersson and Trudgill give an interesting example dealing with this characteristic: You hire a man to work for you and it has been a half of year you hire him. One day, while you are having a conversation with your worker, he uses more sloppy kind of language, with slang and swearing, for no special reason. From the example above, it can be noticed that there is a change of stylistic level of language and it can be interpreted as a friendly gesture, even as sign of respect. Language used between equals or near-equals tends to be less formal (ibid.: 71-72).
c. Slang is typical of spoken language Most of us will act more formal in a situation in which we write than in a situation in which we talk (ibid.: 72). For example, when we watch a football match, we will hear a lot of slangs from the crowd around us, and in the next morning, we will find less slang in the newspaper reporting about the football match we watched. However, there are also written materials containing quite
a lot of slangs, such as novels and short stories. We can find slang especially in the dialogue existing in the novels or short stories, as the author wants to describe the characters are like (Andersson and Trudgill, 1990: 72).
d. Slang is creative “The creative aspect of slang is important. The point of slang words is often
to be startling, amusing or shocking. Something must be done to make them stand out against the other, more ordinary lexical items” (ibid.: 78).
If slangs are heard over and over again, they soon lose their impact. Therefore, groups using slangs will then turn to other words and create a new slang which is not recognized by others in order to maintain the identity of If slangs are heard over and over again, they soon lose their impact. Therefore, groups using slangs will then turn to other words and create a new slang which is not recognized by others in order to maintain the identity of
Slang expressions may take form as metaphor (for example, brown eye means anus) and simile (for example, like a dog with two dicks means
happy). Words may acquire new meanings (for example, cool, originally it is used
to describe weather condition-somewhat cold, usually pleasantly so, later it means very good, excellent).
A narrow meaning may become generalized (for example, fink, originally