Ch. 11 Media Pricing the Product
Pricing the Product Chapter Objectives
- importance of pricing
- monetary & non-monetary
- forms of pricing
- pricing objectives
- for planning pricing strategies
Chapter Objectives
- using costs, demands, and revenue
- to make pricing decisions
- environmental factors
- affecting pricing strategies
Chapter Objectives
- key pricing strategies
- pricing tactics
- for single products
- multiple products,
- pricing on the Internet
Chapter Objectives
- Internet pricing strategies
- Psychological aspects of pricing
- Legal aspects of pricing
- ethical aspects of pricing
“Yes, but what does it cost?”
- Price:
- the assignment of value,
- or the amount the consumer must exchange • to receive the offering
- Offerings:
Money, goods, services, favors, votes, anything else that has value to the other party Figure 11.1: Steps in Price Planning
Step 1: Develop Pricing Objectives
- Sales or market share objectives
- Profit objectives
- Competitive effect objectives
- Customer satisfaction objectives
- Image enhancement objectives
ROLLS-ROYCE
Step 2
Estimate demand Step 2: Estimate Demand
- Demand:
- customers’ desires for a product
- How much of a product are customers willing to buy
as its price goes up or down?
Demand Curves
- Law of demand:
- as price goes up, quantity demanded goes down.
- For prestige products,
- a price increase may actually result in an increase in quantity demanded.
Shifts in Demand Curve
(improved product, new advertising) or 2. non-marketing activities can cause upward or downward shifts in demand.
At a given price , demand is greater or less
Estimating Demand
- Marketers predict total demand by
- estimating potential buyers for a product,
- then multiplying number of buyers times • average amount of each buyer’s purchase.
• Then they predict what the company’s
share of the total market will be.
Demand
Elastic price results
- A change in
- in a substantial change in quantity demanded.
If price is increased , revenues decrease, and vice-versa.
Non-necessities (pizza) generate elastic demand.
Availability of close substitute
Demand
Inelastic
- A change in price
- has
little or no effect on quantity demanded.
- If price is increased, revenues increase.
- The demand for necessities
- (food and electricity) • is generally inelastic.
other products affect a product’s demand.
Cross-elasticity
- Changes in prices of
- Products are substitutes:
- increase in price of one will increase demand for other (bananas vs. strawberries).
One product is essential for use of second:
- increase in price of one decreases demand for other (increasing price of gas lowers demand for tires).
Step 3
Determine costs Step 3: Determine Costs
- Variable costs:
- costs of production that are tied to and
vary depending on the number of units produced.
- Average variable costs may change
- as the number of products produced changes.
Step 3: Determine Costs
- Fixed costs:
- costs of production that don’t change with number of units produced
Rent, cost of owning/maintaining factory, utilities, equipment, fixed salaries of firm’s executives
Step 3: Determine Costs
- Fixed costs:
Average fixed cost: fixed cost per unit (total fixed costs divided by number of units produced) will decrease as number of units produced increases.
Step 3: Determine Costs (cont’d)
- Total costs:
- total of fixed costs &
- variable costs for a set number of units produced.
Song Airlines Video Break-Even Analysis (cont’d)
Break-Even Analysis
- the number of units a firm must produce and sell at a given price to cover all its costs.
- Break-even point:
- point at which a firm doesn’t lose any money and doesn’t make any profit.
- Break-even point
(in units)
- = (total fixed costs)
- divided by (
contribution per unit )
- Contribution per unit:
- the difference between the price the firm charges for a product & the variable costs
Break-Even Analysis (cont’d)
in dollars )
- Break-even point (
- = (total fixed costs)
- divided by
[1 - (variable cost per unit divided by price)] Marginal Analysis
- A method that uses
- cost and demand
- to identify the price • that will maximize profits .
Marginal Analysis
- Marginal cost:
- increase in total costs from producing one additional unit of a product
- Marginal revenue:
- increase in total income or revenue from selling one
(decreases with each additional unit of a product additional unit sold)
- Profit is maximized
where marginal cost is to marginal
exactly equal revenue. Step 4:
Evaluate the Pricing Environment
Step 4: Evaluate the Pricing Environment
- The economy
Broad economic trends Recessions, Inflation
- The competition
- Consumer trends
Step 5:
Choose a Price Strategy Step 5: Choose a Price Strategy
- Pricing strategies based on cost
Simple to calculate and relatively risk free Cost-plus pricing : total all product costs and add markup
Step 5: Choose a Price Strategy (cont’d)
- Pricing strategies based on
demand
- Based on estimate of quantity
- a firm can sell at different prices
Step 5: Choose a Price Strategy (cont’d)
- Pricing strategies based on
demand
- Target costing:
- identify quality and functionality
- –customers need and
- price they’re willing to pay –before designing product.
demand
- Pricing strategies based on
- Yield management pricing :
- charge different prices
- to different customers
- to manage capacity
- Pricing strategies based on the
competition
- Pricing , , , or
near at above below the competition
- :
Price leadership strategy
- industry giant announces price, and
- competitors get in line
- or drop out
- Pricing strategies based on
customers’ needs
- Value pricing or
- everyday low pricing ( EDLP ):
- pricing strategy in which a firm sets prices • that provide ultimate value to customers.
Skimming price: a very high premium price
Step 5: Choose a Price Strategy (cont’d)
- New-product pricing
Step 5: Choose a Price Strategy (cont’d)
- New-product pricing
: Penetration pricing a very low price to encourage more customers to purchase Step 5: Choose a Price Strategy (cont’d)
- New-product pricing
Trial pricing: low price for a limited period of time
Step 6:
Develop Pricing Tactics
individual products Two-part pricing: offering two separate types of payments to purchase the product
Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics
- Pricing for
Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics
- Pricing for
individual products
Payment pricing:
breaking total price into smaller amounts payable over time Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics (cont’d)
- Pricing for
multiple products Price bundling: selling two or more goods or services as a single package for one price Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics (cont’d)
- Pricing for multiple products
Captive pricing: pricing two products that work only when used together Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics (cont’d)
based pricing
- Distribution-
F.O.B. (free on board) origin pricing F.O.B delivered pricing Basing-point pricing Uniform delivered pricing Freight absorption pricing Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics (cont’d)
- Discounting
for channel members (suggested retail price):
- price that manufacturer sets
List price
- as appropriate
end consumer to pay
- for
- Discounting
for channel members Trade or functional discounts:
- set percentage discounts
- off list price
- for each channel level
- Discounting
for channel members
- reduced prices
for purchases of larger quantities
Quantity discounts:
for channel members Cash discounts: enticements to customers to pay bills quickly
Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics (cont’d)
- Discounting
(2% 10 days, net 30 days) (2/10 net 30) Step 6: Develop Pricing Tactics (cont’d)
- Discounting
for channel members Seasonal discounts: price reductions
offered during certain times of year Other pricing issues
Pricing and Electronic Commerce- Dynamic pricing strategies:
- seller easily adjusts price • to meet changes in marketplace.
Pricing and Electronic Commerce • Dynamic pricing strategies:.
Cost of changing prices on Internet is practically zero .
Firms can respond quickly and frequently to changes in costs, supply, and/or demand.
Pricing and Electronic Commerce
- Online auctions (eBay.com)
- E-commerce allows shoppers
- to purchase products through online bidding.
Pricing and Electronic Commerce (cont’d)
- Pricing advantages for online shoppers Consumers gain control.
- Search engines and “
shopbots ”
• make customers more price-sensitive.
- Consumers have more
negotiating power. Issues in Pricing
Psychological
- Buyer’s pricing
expectation
- Internal reference price:
- consumers use a price/price range to evaluate product’s cost.
- Assimilation effect
- Contrast effect
Issues in Pricing
Psychological
- Buyer’s pricing expectation
- Price/quality inferences:
• consumers assume higher-priced
product • has higher quality.
Pricing Strategies
Psychological
- Odd-even pricing:
- prices ending in 99 rather than 00 lead to increased sales.
- Price lining:
- items in a product line sell at different price points.
Considerations
Legal and Ethical
- Deceptive pricing practices
- Going-out-of-business sale
- Bait-and-switch
Considerations
- Unfair sales acts
- Loss-leader pricing
- Unfair sales acts
- Illegal business-to-business (B2B) price discrimination
Legal and Ethical Considerations in Pricing (cont’d)
- Price fixing:
two or more companies conspire
- to keep prices at a certain level
- Horizontal price fixing Vertical price fixing
- Predatory pricing:
- company sets a very low
price
- for purpose of driving
competitors out of business
The end Real People, Real Choices
- Taco Bell (Danielle Blugrind)
- In order to differentiate itself from the competition, Taco Bell needed to update its value pricing menu. Option 1: price entire menu Option 2: price items at 99 at $1.29 Option 3: price items at cents and $1.29
99 cents, $1.19, and $1.29 TACO BELL
Real People, Real Choices
- Taco Bell (Danielle Blugrind)
- Danielle chose option 3: price items at 99 cents, $1.19, and $1.29 By carefully tuning its pricing strategy, money. purveyor of fast-food value for the Taco Bell is reclaiming its position as
Marketing Plan Exercise
• A new seaside resort offers luxury rentals for
a few days, a week, or longer. Considerpossible pricing strategies -- cost-plus, yield
management, everyday low pricing,skimming, and penetration and trial pricing.
- What pricing strategy do you
- recommend for the resort ?
- What pricing tactics do you suggest?
Marketing in Action Case: You Make the Call
• What is the decision facing True Religion?
- What factors are important in
understanding this decision situation?
- What are the alternatives?
- What decision(s) do you recommend?
- What are some ways to implement your
recommendation?
Keeping It Real: Fast-Forward to Next Class,
Decision Time at General Motors R*Works
- Meet Vince O’Brien, VP-Regional Managing Director for General Motors R*Works
- R*Works: regional promotional agency for GM; manages partnerships with sports organizations
- The decision: How to get dealers to support R*Works ski mountain promotional partnerships?
Group Activity
• Your group are marketers for a candy bar manufacturer.
You feel it’s time to increase price, but you’re concerned the increase might not be profitable. --How would you investigate elasticity of demand? --What findings would lead you not to increase it? --What findings would lead you to increase price?
Marketing Math Activity
- You and your friend have decided to go into business together manufacturing handbags.
- You know fixed costs will be $120,000 a year, and you expect variable costs to be $28 per bag.
--If you plan to sell the bags to retail stores for $35,
how many must you sell to break even?
Discussion
• In what ways is a price leadership strategy
good or bad for consumers?
- Should governments allow price
leadership?
Discussion
- In pricing new products, marketers may
choose a skimming or a penetration pricing strategy.
- --What is the advantage or disadvantage of this
practice for consumers?
- --For the industry as a whole?
Discussion
- Consumers often make
price-quality inferences about products.
- --What are some products for which you make price-quality inferences?
- --Do your inferences make sense?
Discussion
- In loss-leader pricing, retailers advertise
and sell an item below cost to get customers into the store.
- --Do you consider this an unethical practice?
- --Who benefits and who is hurt by it?
--Should the practice be made illegal (some states
have done so)?
--How is loss-leader pricing different from bait-and-
switch pricing? Figure 11.3: Shift in Demand Curve
Figure 11.2: Demand Curves for Normal and Prestige Products
unit sales that results from a percentage change in price .
Price Elasticity of Demand
- The percentage change in
Figure 11.7: Break-Even Analysis
Figure 11.8: Marginal Analysis
Figure 11.6: Variable Costs at Different Levels of Production