Master Program of Literature

Critical Reading

  

Master Program of Literature

Study on Translation

Gunadarma University

By the end of this lecture, EXPECTEDLY students will: Learning Outcomes

• Better understand what critical thinking and critical reading are
• Know why critical thinking and critical reading are important
• Have some knowledge of model of critical thinking and elaboration on critical reading

  Accept the challenge to think critically in

• reading text

Part 1: On Being Critical

  

and

Critical Thinking The use of the term “critical”

• “Critical” in this context means
• – “to analyse and evaluate” –
• It does not mean
• – “to make unkind remarks”
H o w d o y o u d e f n e c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g ?

   G “Disciplined, _{I N K I N} self-directed _{T H} thinking . . . ”* The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987.

   “ (Thinking) . . . which exemplifes the perfections of thinking. . .”* T H ^{I N K I N G}

WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?

The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987.

WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?

  In “everyday” _{I N G} language: _{T H I N K}

• Thinking “outside”

  the box

• Thinking about

  thinking

   _G “The intellectually disciplined _{K I N} process of actively and skillfully _{T H I N}

conceptualizing,

applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information.”* * The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987.

  _{to improving it. and evaluating thinking with a view} “Critical thinking is the art of analyzing _{”* I N K I N} G _{Critical Thinking, 2008. Concepts And Tools, 5 ed. The Foundation for *The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking:} T H

  “Critical thinking is . . .

  Self-disciplined

• Self-monitored
• ^{I N G} _{N K} Self-corrective thinking. _{T H I}
• _{for Critical Thinking, 2008. Concepts and Tools, 5 ed. The Foundation}

  *The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking:

  _th

  ”*

• Point of view
• Purpose
• Questions at issue
• Implications and consequences
• Information
• Interpretation and Inference

  T H ^{I N K I N G} It concerns itself with 8 elements of thought

• Concepts
• Assumptions
• ^{The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts} _{and Tools, 5 ed. The Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2008.}

Point of View What are the . .

• – Frames of reference
• – Perspectives – Orientations

  

And how do they infuence “point

of view”?

Purpose What are the

• Goals • Objectives

  

And how do they relate to point of

view?

  What does critical thinking involve?

• Making logical inferences _{(based upon the information presented)}
• Drawing logical conclusions _{( based upon the information presented)}
• Higher levels of thinking, such as . . .

• Conceptualizing— _{developing a “mind picture”}
• Conceptualizing _{• Applying— conceptual info to use putting}
• Applying _{• Analyzing— closely examining,}
• Analyzing _{breaking down to tearing apart or}
• Synthesizing _{really look at}
• Evaluating _{• Synthesizing— organized things together in a well- pulling}

  _{• Evaluating—}

   logical way _making

_{assessing; rtc.}

decisions about; reviewing;

  ACTIVITIES

  Why is Critical ACTIVITIES IN YOUR BOOKLET.

  Thinking Important?

  W hy

  I s

  C ritical

  T hinking

  I mportant

  ?  . . . it underlies the basic elements of communication

• Intellectual Humility • Intellectual Autonomy • Intellectual Integrity • Intellectual Courage • Intellectual Perseverance

  

 . . . it plays an important part in

social change. . .

• Confdence in Reason • Intellectual Empathy • Fairmindedness . . . traits important to the development of a multi-cultural world view and the diminishing of irrational thought!

  

 . . . it is a path to freedom from

half-truths and deceptions Critical thinking helps us develop:

  Goal: to become cultivated critical thinkers Characteristics of “cultivated” critical _{Cultivated critical thinkers . . .} thinkers

  By :

• _{--formulating questions clearly and --raising vital questions} A well cultivated critical thinker . . .

   precisely

• Raises vital questions _{Formulate questions Raise vital questions}

  and problems, _{and problems clearly, precisely} formulating them clearly and precisely;

• Gather
• Analyze and
• Gathers and assesses

  relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it efectively,

  information

  assess it

• Evaluate it ^{By: --gathering information, then --assessing it and determining what it means and what it is worth}
• Comes to well-

  reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards; ^{Draw conclusions Find solutions Use relevant criteria to test them By: --drawing conclusions from the information presented --fnding possible, plausible solutions and testing them with relevant criteria}

  Keep an open mind

• _{--maintaining an open mind}

  By

  Network w/others; _{communication open keep lines of}

• Communicates

  By networking with others and maintaining open lines of communication with them efectively with others and others. in fguring out solutions to complex problems.

  To become a cultivated critical thinker:

Dare to think

_{• Develop a sense of observation and curiosity} outside the box! _{• Ask pertinent questions • Share ideas} • Become interested in fnding new solutions _{• Seek understanding and information} • Assess statements and arguments
• _{• Examine beliefs, assumptions, and} Also . . . _{• Listen to others, think about what} opinions; wei gh them against truth _{give feedback} they say, _reader

  • Become an open-minded listener and

Part 2: On Reading

and

Critical Reading

reading: a differentiated practice No text is neutral. All texts position readers to accept certain views of the world. Readers, however, have the reciprocal power to counter that positioning.

  1. Dominant: reading in agreement with the text.

  2. Alternative: reading in mild disagreement across the text.

  3. Resistant: reading in opposition to the text. _{Johnson (2001) & Moon (2001)}

Good Reader vs. Poor Reader

• Read with purpose
• Read and assimilate thought
• Read critically and ask questions to evaluate the author arguments
• Read a variety of books
• Enjoy rea>Read aimlessly
• Get loss in the muddle of word
• Swallow everything
• One tracker reading
• Hate to read, reading is boring

What is “critical reading?”

• Preface – “Critical” is not intended to have a negative meaning in the context of “critical reading.”
• Defnition: An active approach to reading that involves an in depth examination of the text. Memorization and understanding of the text is achieved. Additionally, the text is broken down into its components and examined critically in order to achieve a meaningful understanding of the material.

Passive vs. Active Reading

• Passive Reading: - (4 traits) • 1. Largely inactive process.
• 2. Low motivation to examine the text critically or at an in-depth level.
• 3. Important pieces of data and assumptions may be glossed over and missed.
• 4. Data and assumptions that are perceived by the passive reader are accepted at face value or are examined superfcially, with little thought.

Passive vs. Active Reading

• Active Reading: - Active reading involves interacting with the text and therefore requires signifcantly more energy than passive reading.
• Critical reading ALWAYS involves active reading.

  The active reader invests sufcient efort to

understand the text and commit important details

to memory.
• The active reader identifes important pieces of

  data, the assumptions underlying arguments, and

  examines them critically. They rely on their personal experiences and knowledge of theory to analyze the text.

  What Is Critical Reading? • To non-critical readers, texts provide facts.

  Readers gain knowledge by memorizing the statements within a text.

• To the critical reader, any single text

  provides but one portrayal of the facts, one

  individual’s “take” on the subject matter. Critical readers thus recognize not only what a text says, but also how the author convey the message.

  Critical Reading

  The critical reader acknowledges that writers make choice; the critical reader makes judgments about the text.

• – Content: e.g., evidence, examples, details
• – Language: e.g., “politicians” or

  “senators”

• – Structure:e.g., comparison/contrast,

A critical reader

• attempts to understand and analyse the reasoning in the text
• evaluates the evidence ofered
• recognises assumptions
• takes a challenging and questioning attitude towards the text

A critical reader doesn’t

• accept the authority of the text without question
• take a passive and purely receptive role towards the text
• ‘write of’ the text immediately if the writer’s meaning is not immediately clear

• • quickly dismiss the text because the

  views do not match his/her own

  To what extent do these everyday reading tasks require a critical reading approach?

• reading the instructions to set the thermostat on your
• heating boiler
• reading a local newspaper report about an attack on an Asian shopkeeper
• reading a primary school prospectus for your child
• reading a course outline
• reading descriptions of 2 sofas in diferent furniture catalogues
• fnding out the train times on a website

Critical Reading

  So all texts, to a certain extent, require critical reading. It is not about criticising everything you read

• it’s about asking questions about the text: its purpose, the claims made and the evidence presented.
Some general questions to think about
• Can I believe everything I read?
• Are experts always right?
• What makes me take more notice of one academic writer and less of another?
• What makes a scholarly, rigorous piece of research, and what makes research fndings weak or strong?

   

  Some questions to think about when surveying a text

• Who is the writer writing for?
• Who is the publisher?
• Is it in the interests of the author/publisher to make a particular claim?
• Which sources has the writer cited?
• What sort of adjectives are used?
• How does the writer rely on authority?
• What does the writer present as fact?
• How does the writer select evidence?

  Some questions you can use to _{Does this follow? How do you know?} interrogate the text… _{Is this a fact or an opinion? Who exactly said this and when?} Where is your evidence? _{Where can I check this out? Are you assuming x is true here?} Why? Why not? What exactly? What’s been missed out?

Interacting with the text

  You don’t have to fully agree or disagree with what the writer is saying but you can raise questions about the claims that s/he makes based on the evidence there is to support you. Part 2.1. Goals of Critical Reading

  Goals of Critical Reading 1.to recognize an author’s purpose              2.to understand tone and persuasive elements 3.to recognize bias  

More specifcally;

  1. recognizing purpose involves inferring a basis for choices of content and language

2. recognizing tone and persuasive

elements involves classifying the nature of language choices 3. recognizing bias involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content and language

  

On Recognizing

Author’s Purpose

• • Understanding the way a passage is organized

  may help you determine the author’s purpose.
• Consider the italicized introduction, the main idea, and the tone; by examining them together, you may discover what the author’s purpose is.
• Think about what point the writer is making, how he or she organizes ideas, and the words used, which will reveal tone (attitude/possible feelings).

  !

On Recognizing Attitude, Mood, and Tone

  1. The terms attitude, mood, and tone often refer to the author’s slant on a subject, or the author’s emotions or feelings.

  2. Attitude and tone are related in that the tone of a selection often refects his or her attitude.

  3. Think about how “tone of voice” refects feelings and attitude.

Tone

• Tone is often described as the way an author feels about both the topic and the reader.
• The tone in a selection can be formal, casual, playful, serious, sarcastic, or any other attitude one can imagine.
• Connotative and denotative language is a very useful tool for expressing attitude and tone.
• Writers use words on purpose to create a desired efect.

Helpful Hints

  

Pay attention to the author’s choice of details. The

author has a purpose, and the reader must determine what that purpose is. The author’s purpose can be found in the choice of details which reveal attitude or tone.

  

In order to fully understand author’s purpose, it is

important for the reader to recognizing the details

provided by the choice of words the author uses.

As stated before, purpose and tone are closely related, so if you immediately recognize the

author’s purpose, you may easily identify his/her

tone.

Typical Attitude, Mood, and Tone Questions:

  1. What is the author’s attitude about this subject?

  2. Which description best portrays the author’s feelings?

  3. Which of these words adds to the mood (tone/attitude) of the selection?

  4. What is the author’s overall tone in the last paragraph?

  

A few more important notes about

Critical Reading Questions

• • Some of the passages are short, some are long,

  and some are paired.

• – If you take the time to read a long passage, try to

  answer all the questions for that passage. (Time

  management!)
• – It may be easier to preview the questions when

  approaching a shorter question because you will

  hopefully recognize the answer quickly.
• – When given two passages together, try this strategy:

  _{• Then, read the second passage, and answer the remaining}

  _{• Read the frst passage, and answer the questions for that passage. • Preview the questions might help as well! and some of which will deal with both passages.} questions, some of which will deal strictly with the second passage

  One Last Thing…

• Always annotate the text:
• – Circle tone words
• – Underline important details
• – Note transitional phrases/words
• – Circle defnitions provided
• – Write summary phrases after each paragraph

On Recognizing Bias

  Good critical readers must be aware of their own biases and the biases of others.

  A bias is a strong leaning in either a positive or negative direction.

  A bias is very similar to a prejudice.

  Sometimes writers simply state their biases; however, most biases are implied by the writer. Subjective material generally places more emphasis on opinions than facts, and it is more likely to display a strong bias.

  A critical reader will study the author’s line of reasoning, notice whether opinions are supported by facts and reasons, and then decide if the author’s bias has hindered the making of a good argument.

  As you are reading textbook material, keep in mind that the authors also have biases.

  Their biases will influence the way they present the material.

  Although textbooks primarily deal with factual material, authors must decide what facts to include and omit, and what facts to emphasize.

  Pay attention to the author’s tone and choice of words to determine if a bias is present.

  Such caution is especially important when the material deals with a controversial issue.

  Denotative and Connotative Language When you look a word up in the dictionary, you are determining its exact meaning without the suggestions or implications that it may have taken on.

  This is called the denotative meaning of a word.

  The connotative meaning of a word refers to the ideas or feelings suggested by the word.

  Words that have the same denotative meaning can have much different connotative meanings.

  The connotation of a word can tell you a lot about what the speaker of the word means by it.

  Not all words have connotative meanings.

  Words that are heavily connotative are often referred to as “loaded” or “emotionally charged.” Writers who have a particular point of view and want to persuade you to accept that view often make use of loaded words or phrases.

  Thus subjective material is more likely to rely on connotative, rather than denotative, language, and it is more likely to display a strong bias.

  Euphemism The word euphemism is derived from the Greek word euphemos, meaning “to use a good word for an evil or unfavorable word.”

  The Greek prefix eu means “good,” and phemi means “speak.” When someone substitutes an inoffensive word or phrase for one that could be offensive to someone, they are using a euphemism.

  Most of the time euphemisms are used to be polite or to avoid controversy.

  Euphemisms can also be used to purposely mislead and obscure the truth.

  Propaganda Devices   _{Webster’s dictionary defines propaganda as} “a systematic effort to promote a particular cause _{or point of view.”} Thus by definition, propaganda is not evil or deceptive. _{However, some of the techniques used are questionable because they} appeal primarily to our emotions _{rather than to our intellect.}

  Slogans _{The slogan is equally effective} in advertising _{and political campaigns.}

  In the latter, it usually takes the form of a chant _{that can unite large crowds into one common emotion.}

  Name-Calling _{Name-calling is a device used widely} in political and ideological battles _{as well as in commercial advertising campaigns.}

  It tries to make us form a judgment _{without examining the evidence on which it should be based.}

  Propagandists appeal to our instincts of hate and fear. _{They do this by giving bad names to those} individuals, groups, nations, races, or consumer products _{that they would like us to condemn or reject.}

  Glittering Generalities _{Glittering generalities are broad, widely accepted ideals} and virtuous words that are used to sell a point of view. _{Like name-calling, glittering generalities urge us to} accept and approve something without examination.

  _{Some advertisements} Transfer use symbols of authority, prestige, and respect _{that arouse emotions to sell a cause, a candidate, or a consumer product} through the process of subconscious _{transfer or association.}

  Testimonial _{A testimonial} is an endorsement _{of a product or an individual} by celebrities _{or other well-respected persons.}

  Plain Folks The plain-folks device creates the impression that the advertisers or political candidates are just ordinary folks like you and me.

  Card Stacking _{Card stacking is the technique by which} facts, illustrations, and statements _{are carefully selected to make the maximum impact} and _{sometimes give misleading impressions.}

  The cliché that _{“statistics don’t lie, but you can lie with statistics” applies to this technique.}

  _{The bandwagon device is based on the idea that} Bandwagon “if everybody else is doing it, so should you.” _{“Jump on the bandwagon,” “be the first in your neighborhood,”} “follow the crowd,” _and “don’t throw your vote away by voting for a loser” _{are clichés associated with this device. makes political polling important at election time.} The psychology behind this technique _{that he or she is a winner often leads to some conflicting polling results.} The fact that each candidate needs to project the image

  Sex Appeal We don’t ordinarily think of sex as a propaganda device, but it sells products in many ways.

  In recent years, emotional appeals based on sex have been used more and more in product advertising.

  Sex appeal is used to stimulate emotions and sell consumer products to both sexes.

  Music The last device in our list is also seldom thought of as a propaganda device, yet it is one of the most effective techniques in radio and television commercials.

  Music is an excellent tool for creating specific moods, and it can be used effectively for product identification. Part 3 On Analyzing Reading Text

Critically

  Three types of reading and analysis:

• Non-critical reading is satisfed with recognizing what a text says and restating the key remarks.

  What a text says     – restatement

What a text does    – description

What a text means – inference

  Inference: Reading Ideas as Well as Words Consider the following statement: “The Senator admitted owning the gun that killed his wife.” What can be inferred from this statement? • There is a Senator.

• He owns a gun.
• He is married.
• His wife is dead.
• That gun caused her death.

• • The Senator admitted owning that gun.

  

“The Senator admitted owning the

gun that killed his wife.”

Now, what can’t be inferred?

  if the

• We do not necessarily know Senator's admission is true.

  whether

• We do not really know

  the Senator is in any way

responsible for his wife's death,

nor do we know that she died of

gun shot wounds.

  if it was

• We do not even know

  murder—it might have been

Read the following story

  A man and his son are driving in a car. The car crashes into a tree, killing the father and seriously injuring his son. At the hospital, the boy needs to have surgery. Upon looking at the boy, the doctor says (telling the truth), "I cannot operate on him. He is my son.“

  Analysis and Inference: The Tools of Critical Reading

• A critical reader know what to look for

  ( analysis ) and how to think about what to fnd ( inference ) . what to look for —

• The frst part — involves recognizing those aspects

  of a discussion that control the meaning. how to think

• The second part —

  

about what you fnd — involves the

  

Correlation to Student Performance

Correlation between poor critical reading skills and:

• • Poor performance on legal writing assignments –

  critical reading ability infuences analytic, critical thinking, problem solving, and writing skills
• Poor performance on traditional multiple choice questions
• Poor performance on analytical examination questions

  

Critical Reading Process:

  Four steps to read efciently and profciently A. Place material to be read into context.

• _• Determine why material is being read -What is the purpose of the material within the class or subject being approached? _• Use other parts of reading material to determine context (table of contents, chapter headings, defnitions for unknown words)

  

C. Actively read material, taking notes, looking up

words and concepts for basic understanding

D. Complete post-reading exercise to confrm understanding

  

Classroom Strategies

Teaching students to read efciently and profciently

  1. Discuss the reason that the material exists, the source and who created it

  2. Discuss diferent ways information could have been presented or is available to reader

  3. Understand where reading materials fts with course or subject matter objectives

  4. Gather information to prepare for active reading

  

Classroom Strategies

Teaching students to read efciently and profciently

  B. Reading Techniques: Skimming

  1. Students skim material to get overview/overall sense of material

  

2. Encourage multiple reviews of material at diferent

depths C. Reading Techniques: Active Reading

  1. Students read and annotate material

  2. Focus on content and language of text

  3. Students clarify unknown meanings with resources

  4. Students annotate by underlining, questioning and outlining material, including briefng

  

Classroom Strategies

Teaching students to read efciently and profciently

  Reinforce understanding through objective examination and subjective written exercises a. Summarize

  b. Evaluate

  c. Synthesize

  d. Hypothesize

  

Goal of critical reading is to make material

CLEAR
• What are the claims and

  laims: issues?

• C
• Is

  ogic: presentation/organization

• L

  logical? vidence:

• E
• Do facts support the argument?

  nalysis:

• A
• Is analysis sound and based on legal ebut
• R

  reasoning?

• Are there counter- arguments and counter- evidence?

Techniques of Critical Reading

  1. Previewing

  2. Writing

  3. Critical Reading (at least two times)

  4. Summarizing

  5. Forming a Critical Response

  6. Finding a Focus for Your Paper

  

Previewing

• Form meaningful expectations about the reading.
• Pace yourself – decide how much time you will dedicate to the reading.
• Skimming.
• – Look for Title, Section Headings, Date – Expectations about the Author (previous works)
• – Defne the important vocabulary words
• – Brief summaries of chapters
• – The goal is to obtain a general grasp of the text

Writing

  1. Writing While Reading

  a. Margin

  b. Divided Page Method

  c. Landmark/Footnote Method

  d. Reading Journal

  e. Online Documents

  

Writing - Margin

• Mark, highlight, or underline parts of the text that you think are very important.

  Option 1 - Write a few words in the margin that capture the essence of your reaction. Option 2 – Write a few words that will help you to remember the passage.

  This is useful for learning defnitions

Divided Page Method

• On a separate piece of paper, divide your page into two columns.
• Label one column “text” (meaning from your reading) and the other “response” (meaning your response).
• Write down a part of the text you think is important in the “text” column and then write a reaction to it in the other column.

Landmark/Footnote Method

• On a separate piece(s) of paper or in your reading journal, dedicate an adequate amount of space to an article, book, chapter, etc, you are reading.
• Highlight, mark, or underline a critical part in your reading. In the margin, indicate that you are going to write a footnote. For example, write a 1 or a (or whatever you want).
• In your reading journal, write a ‘1’ or ‘a’

  (or whatever symbol you chose) and then write your critical response.

  Reading Journal

• In addition to the other uses described above,

  use the reading journal to track what you are

  reading and to form critical responses to

  articles, chapters, etc you have read in their entirety.

• Try to summarize the entire article, describe the main points, defne key terms, and express your reactions.
• Remember, do NOT refer back to the text until you absolutely have to! Give your memory a

  

workout! Force yourself to learn the material

as you read and be able to write it down clearly afterwards.
• Also, put concepts into your own words.
• A general rule is 3-5 pages of notes per 100

Online Documents

• Two ways to write while reading online documents…

  1) Reading Journal 2) Cut and Paste in Word Processor, then insert comments

• For example…

Read #1

• Read in an environment where you will be free from distractions.
• Read steadily and smoothly. Try to enjoy the work.
• Write notes, but do so sparingly.
• What works best for you?
• We suggest avoiding your cell phone, television, computer, and most music (besides instrumental).

  

Read #2

• Re-read the material more slowly than during your frst read.
• The two most important objectives are:

  1. Understand the content of the material

  2. Understand the material’s structure

   Restatement- Restating what a text says; talking about the original topic.

   Description- Describing what a text a does; identifes aspects of text.

   Interpretation- Analyze what a text means; asserts an overall meaning.

Summarization

• Summarization: Pull out the main points of the text and write them down.
• The summary’s complexity and length will vary according to the complexity and length of the text you have read!

  Forming Your Critical

Response

• Analysis • Interpretation • Synthesis • In forming your critical response, you will now go beyond what the author has explicitly written to form your impressions of the text.

Analysis

• Analysis is the separation of something into its parts or elements, which helps to examine them more closely.
• To analyze reading, you can take at least these two approaches:

  1) Choose a question to guide analysis.

  2) Look at the author’s argument

Analysis (continued) • Examine the argument structure

• Claims: Statements that require support by evidence.
• Assumptions: The writer’s underlying beliefs, opinions, principles, or inferences that connect evidence to the claims.

  

Analysis (continued)

• Types of evidence – Facts: Verifable evidence.
• – Opinion: Judgments based upon facts.
• – Expert Opinion: Judgments formed by authorities on a given subject.
• – Appeal to Beliefs or Needs: Readers are asked to accept a claim in part because they already accept it as true WITHOUT factual evidence or because it coincides with their needs.
• – Appeal to Emotion: A claim that is persuasive because it evokes an emotion within the reader, but may or may not rely on factual evidence.

  Analysis (continued)

• To judge the reliability of evidence, look at the following areas:
• – Accuracy – Relevance – Representativeness – Adequacy

  http://www1.ca.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/index.html

  Analysis (continued) • Logical Fallacies: Errors in reasoning.

• Examples:
• – Red herring-introduction of an irrelevant issue in an argument.
• – Non sequitur- linking two or more ideas that have no logical connection.
• – Making broad generalizations without proven empirical evidence.
• Learn to identify logical fallacies by visiting:

Interpretation

• After breaking down the text into its components and examining them, ask yourself about the conclusions you can draw from this evidence.
• What claims does the author make?
• What evidence supports these claims?
• Can you infer anything beyond what the author has explicitly written that either strengthens or weakens the claims made by the author?
• See Critical Reading Checklist Handout

Synthesis

• Now that you have broken down the text into its parts, analyzed them, and interpreted it all, you should make new connections with what you know.
• Ask yourself again: What are the main points of this text? Were my expectations for this article met? If I “read in between the lines” do I learn anything else about what the author is saying? Overall, what can I conclude from this text?

  Delivering Your Critical Response

• By this point, you will have everything you need to create a critical response.

Finding a Focus for Your Paper

  

If you are delivering a critical

response in the form of a

written paper, here are some

tips for fnding a focus for your writing and getting started.

  Step 1: Finding Your Focus

• Start early. Give yourself enough time.
• Understand the assignment requirements.
• Know the material.
• Choose a topic that interests you & has potential future value.
• Make sure the topic is relevant and researchable (appropriate available research).
• Develop a controlling idea that is congruent with your angle on a topic or

  

Step 2:

Developing your angle and establishing a controlling

idea

• • Developing an angle and establishing a

  controlling idea is important for every type of paper.
• Be as specifc as possible.
• Use it to focus & direct the paper.

• • Make a statement instead of a question

• State a point that you can further develop, explain, or substantiate.

  

Developing Your Focus:

Examples

Angle Controlling Idea

  

Homelessness. The causes of homelessness

Cultural bias in testing. Problems, solutions,

& the clinician’s role

  

Professional Ethics. Bridging the gap between

professional ethical standards and personal morals

  

Step 3:

Getting Started

Start-up Styles:

• Outline: Intro, body, conclusion
• Brainstorm: Write down points & ideas you have regarding your topic.
• Find relevant research & writing regarding your topic and highlight important quotations.
• Start writing & organize it later.

  

Diferent strategies work for diferent people!

  

The Writing Process

• Rough Draft • Final Draft • Edit • Edit Again • If you need assistance you can bring your paper to the Academic Support Center (room 631) for review.

  Bibliography _{Touchstone: New York.} Adler M. J., & Van Doren, C. (1972). How to read a book. _(visited Critical Reading Checklist: _{Critical Reading Skills Sheet, compiled by Craig M. Klugman,} skills) – a useful list of questions

  _{Fowler, H. R., & Aaron, J. E. (2001). The little, brown} Bibliography continued _{General advice on reading academic texts, including} handbook. Longman: New York. questioning:

_{back to basics. Presented in March and July, 2006. The Chicago}

Godfrey, A., & Krauss, P. (2006). The art of essay writing: _{School: Chicago. 5 July 2010 from Section 5 Being a Critical Reader: Find the link on this page:} Reading Academically: University of Southampton 2003