WORD FORMATION PROCESSES IN THE BLACK HAWK DOWN MOVIE SCRIPT.

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Word Formation Processes in the Black Hawk Down Movie Script

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Sarjana Sastra Degree

in Indonesia University of Education

By: Winda Ratnanila

(0906326)

English Education Department

Faculty of Language and Arts Education

Indonesia University of Education

2013

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Word Formation Processes in the

Black Hawk Down

_{Movie Script}

Oleh Winda Ratnanila

Sebuah skripsi yang diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar Sarjana pada Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni

Oktober 2013

Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.

Skripsi ini tidak boleh diperbanyak seluruhya atau sebagian, dengan dicetak ulang, difoto kopi, atau cara lainnya tanpa ijin dari penulis.

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PAGE OF APPROVAL

WORD FORMATION PROCESSES IN THE BLACK HAWK DOWN MOVIE SCRIPT

Winda Ratnanila 0906326 Approved by

Supervisor I Supervisor II

Dr. Dadang Sudana, M.A. Ripan Hermawan, S.S., M.A. NIP.196009191990031001 NIP.198010242005011001

Head of English Education Department Faculty of Language and Arts Education

Indonesia University of Education

Prof. Dr. Didi Suherdi, M.Ed. NIP. 196211011987121001

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ABSTRACT

The study entitled Word Formation Processes in the Black Hawk Down Movie Script is aimed to reveal the tokens of acronym, compounding and clipping, and identify the context of situation leading to the use of those tokens in the movie script of Black

Hawk Down. This study used Bauer’s (1983) theory of word formation processes and Hymes’s (1974) theory of the context of situation. The result of the analysis showed that the total number of the target words is 75 tokens. There are 19 acronyms (35 tokens), 19 compounding (26 tokens), and 8 clipping (24 tokens). Then, the use of those tokens is various depending on the context of situation. However the use of acronym, compounding, and clipping tokens are mostly used in the form of a command and a report. Furthermore, the use of each token is also used between soldiers or between superior-subordinate, within both formal and informal situations.

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ABSTRAK

Penelitian berjudul Word Formation Processes in the Black Hawk Down Movie

Script bertujuan untuk mengungkap token acronym, token compounding dan token clipping, dan mengidentifikasi konteks situasi dari penggunaan token-token tersebut

dalam naskah film Black Hawk Down. Penelitian ini menggunakan teori Bauer (1983) dalam word formation processes dan Hymes (1974) dalam konteks situasi. Hasil analisis menunjukan bahwa jumlah total dari sasaran kata adalah 75 token, terdiri dari 19 acronym (35 token), 19 compounding (26 token), dan 8 clipping (24 token). Penggunaan dari token-token tersebut bermacam-macam tergantung pada konteks situasi. Namun penggunaan dari token acronym, compounding dan clipping sering digunakan dalam bentuk perintah dan laporan. Selain itu, penggunaan setiap token juga digunakan antara tentara atau antara atasan-bawahan, dalam bentuk situasi formal dan informal.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORIZATION ... i

PREFACE ... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... iii

ABSTRACT ... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... v

LIST OF TABLES ... vii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... viii

CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1 Background ... 1

1.2 Research Questions ... 2

1.3 Aims of the Study ... 3

1.4 Scope of the Study ... 3

1.5 Research Method ... 3

1.6 Clarification of the Terms ... 3

1.7 Paper Organization ... 4

CHAPTER IITHEORETICAL FOUNDATION ... 6

2.1 Word Formation and Military Context ... 6

2.1.1 Word Formation ... 6

2.1.2 Word Formation in Military Context ... 10

2.2 Words Used and Context of Situation theory ... 11

2.3 Previous Studies ... 13

2.4 Closing Remarks ... 14

CHAPTER IIIRESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 16

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3.2 Data Collection ... 16

3.2.1 Source of Data Collection ... 17

3.2.2 Procedures of Data Collection ... 17

3.3 Data Analysis ... 18

3.4 Closing Remarks ... 21

CHAPTER IVFINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 22

4.1 Word Formation in Black Hawk Down Movie Script ... 22

4.1.1 Acronym ... 22

4.1.2 Compounding... 25

4.1.3 Clipping ... 28

4.2 Context of Situation Leading to the Use of the Tokens in Black Hawk Down Movie Script ... 30

4.2.1 SPEAKING Analysis of Acronym Tokens ... 30

4.2.2 SPEAKING Analysis of Compounding Tokens ... 33

4.2.3 SPEAKING Analysis of Clipping Tokens... 35

4.3 Discussion ... 38

4.3.1 Acronym ... 38

4.3.2 Compounding... 42

4.3.3 Clipping ... 44

4.4 Closing Remarks ... 47

CHAPTER VCONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 49

5.1 Conclusions ... 49

5.2 Suggestions ... 49

REFERENCES ... 51

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Acronym of weapon ... 18

Table 3.2 Compounding of military ... 19

Table 3.3 Clipping ... 19

Table 3.4 SPEAKING analysis ... 20

Table 4.1 Acronym of weapon ... 23

Table 4.2 Acronym of communication ... 23

Table 4.3 Miscellaneous... 24

Table 4.4 Compounding of military ... 25

Table 4.5 Miscellaneous... 26

Table 4.6 Clipping ... 28

Table 4.7 SPEAKING analysis of KIA ... 31

Table 4.8 SPEAKING analysis of RPG ... 32

Table 4.9 SPEAKING analysis of airspace ... 34

Table 4.10 SPEAKING analysis of businessman ... 35

Table 4.11 SPEAKING analysis of ammo ... 36

Table 4.12 SPEAKING analysis of doc ... 37

Table 4.13 SPEAKING analysis of ETA ... 39

Table 4.14 SPEAKING analysis of JROTC………...40

Table 4.15 SPEAKING analysis of CNN ... 41

Table 4.16 SPEAKING analysis of airstrikes ... 42

Table 4.17 SPEAKING analysis of stronghold ... 43

Table 4.18 SPEAKING analysis of frenchfries………... 44

Table 4.19 SPEAKING analysis of ammo ... 45

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LIST OF APPENDICES

SPEAKING analysis of acronym ... 56

SPEAKING analysis of compounding ... 70

SPEAKING analysis of clipping ... 81

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides background of the study. It also draws attention to various aspects related to the study of English word formation processes in Black

Hawk Down movie script, such as its scope, research questions, and research method.

1.1 Background

Word formation processes are interesting phenomena to be analyzed. The analysis of word formation processes has been done in some fields. For example the analysis of word formation processes in a language which was investigated by Sharifi & Karimipour (2013). They investigated word formation processes in Kurdish language and English. They found that Kurdish did not have a written form and was not an official language. Those factors remarkably decrease the level of word formation processes in Kurdish language. Meanwhile, Kouga (2003) investigated the word formation process in Camfranglais. He found that Camfranglais was developed by Cameroon secondary school pupils who used it when they wanted to discuss issues of their interest among themselves. The analysis of word formation processes has also been applied in education field, such as the investigation of second language learners by Tahaineh (2012). He made emphasis on how relevant word formation processes or even morphology in general can be for the non-native speaker or a second language learner as a way to increase their vocabulary or lexical resources, and also as a strategy to promote their autonomous learning. Another field of word formation analysis is in the literature field. Nanda, Rosa & Ardi (2012) investigated the word formation processes in Twilight novel and Twilight movie script. They found that the most commonly used type of word formation in Twilight novel was suppletion, while the most commonly used type of word formation in Twilight movie

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script was cliticization.Based on the number of appearance, the use of word formation processes was mostly found in the Twilight novel. Meanwhile, Marzita, Syarif & Ardi (2013) investigated the word formation processes of English slang in teenager movie scripts. Their data wereCamp rock and Juno movie scripts. They found that the most commonly used of word formation procesess in Camp rock movie script was clipping and in Juno movie script was coinage. Based on the number of appearance, the mostly used of slang was mostly found in Juno movie script.The reason was that the characters in Juno were in their early teenage life where they used slang a lot. However a similar study in military context has not been conducted. This study investigated the word formation processes in military context in theBlack Hawk

Down movie script.

Black Hawk Downillustrated the civil war in Somalia. It included the activities

of the American soldiers who came to Somalia as part of a larger United Nations peacekeeping force. The analysis of word formation processes in military context is an interesting phenomenon because in the military context,the soldiers used code to keep confidential information from unauthorized eyes (Hipschman, 1995). That secure and rapid communications are essential to the effective operation on the battlefield. Pahl (2003) said that the soldiers have a bureaucracy to use abbreviations and acronyms in their code. Furthermore, this study used Bauer’s (1983) theory of word formation to investigate the word formation processes in the movie script. It also used Hymes’s (1974) theory of context of situation to investigate the context of situation leading to the use of the words.

1.2 Research Questions

Based on the background of the study, the problems are formulated below:

1. What tokens of acronym, compounding, and clipping are found in Black

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2. What is the context of situation leading to the meaning used by those tokens?

1.3 Aims of the Study

This study is aimed at:

1. Investigating the tokens of acronym, compounding, and clipping in Black

Hawk Down movie script.

2. Discovering the context of situation leading to the meaning used by those tokens.

1.4 Scope of the Study

This study focused on word formation processes in military context, which concerned on tokens of acronym, compounding, and clipping, and the context of situation leading to the use of such tokens in the Black Hawk Down movie script.

1.5 Research Method

This study used the qualitative descriptive method. Qualitative method seeks to embrace and understand the contextual influences on the research issues (Hennick et al., 2011). A descriptive method is used in order to give the systematic description about the study. The source of data was Black Hawk Down movie script.It is taken from the website (www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk). That movie script is analyzed by means of qualitative approach the data which is also presented in table of data contains the frequency of the tokens within that movie script.

1.6 Clarification of the Terms

To avoid misconception and misunderstanding, the following is the clarification of terms used in the present study:

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1. Word Formation: the study of the ways in which new complex words are built on the basis of other words or morphemes. (Plag, 2013, p.12).

2. Movie Script: the blueprint for the visual telling of a story. It is a story told with pictures. (Worth, n.d.).

3. Acronym: formed from the initial letters of a set other word. (Yule, 1996, p.68).

4. Compounding: joining of two separate words to produce a single form. (Yule, 1996, 65).

5. Clipping: the process when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form. (Yule, 1996, p.66).

6. Context of situation: the environment in which meanings are being exchanged. There is a tool to analyze the context of the situation, that is SPEAKING which an abbreviation for Setting and Scene, Participants, Ends, Act Sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norm of Interaction and Interpretation; and Genre. (Chaer & Agustina, 2004, p. 49).

1.7 Paper Organization

This study was organized in five chapters as follows:

Chapter I (Introduction)

It explained the background detail of the study as well as drawn attention to various aspects related to the realization for the research.

Chapter II (Theoretical Foundation)

It presented theoretical outlines that are relevant to the present study were enclosed. It also included the definitions and types of English word formation, word formation in military context and the definition of context of situation.

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Chapter III (Research Methodology)

It explained the methodology used in performing the research. Research method, data sources, instruments and procedures of the study are included in this section as well.

Chapter IV (Findings and Discussions)

This chapter explained the result of the research which consisted of findings, data presentation and discussion of the findings.

Chapter V (Conclusions and Suggestions)

It presented the conclusions of the research findings and the suggestions for further research.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The chapter presents an explanation of the procedures to find answers to the problems which concern with 1) tokens of acronym, compounding and clipping found in the Black Hawk Down movie script and 2) the context of situation leading to the use of such tokens. This chapter elaborates in detail about design of the study, data collection, and data analysis.

3.1 Design of the Study

The study is conducted mainly using qualitative method in which attempts have been done to reveal more than its appearance of several word formation processes, in particular acronym, compounding and clipping, by investigating their context of situation. According to Hennick et al (2001), qualitative method seeks to embrace and understand the contextual influences on the research issues. This method is used in order to show and describe the word formation processes in the Black

Hawk Down movie script. However, some description statistic meanings are used in

the form of percentage and frequencies of target word occurrence. Data collection elaborates the source of the data and the procedures of data. The data analysis is consisted of identifying, classifying, calculating, analyzing, and discussing, which elaborated in the following sections.

3.2 Data Collection

This chapter explained about the data sources as well as the procedures of data collection.

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3.2.1 Source of Data Collection

The subject used in this study was Black Hawk Down movie script which was taken from the site (http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk). This site provides plenty of movie screenplays for free. However, all movie scripts in this site are intended for educational purposes only. Illegal use of the scripts, such as piracy, is prohibited.

The movie is an adaptation of the book by Mark Bowden with the same title. It was released on 28th December 2001. The movie told about the civil war in Somalia, which happened in 1993. An elite team of more than 100 Delta Force soldiers and Army Rangers, part of a larger United Nations peacekeeping force, are dropped into civil war Mogadishu, Somalia, in an effort to kidnap two of local crime lord Mohamed Farah Aidid's top lieutenants. When two of the mission's Black Hawk helicopters are shot down by enemy forces, the Americans are committed to recover every man, dead or alive. The ensuing firefight is a merciless 15-hour ordeal and the longest ground battle involving American soldiers since the Vietnam War. Ebert (2002) said that Black Hawk Down was voted one of the top ten films of the year by the National Board of Review prior to Oscar qualification.

3.2.2 Procedures of Data Collection

Before analyzing the data, first, the data identification, classification, calculation, analysis, and discussion were conducted. Second, watching some movies related to Army forces. The choice was decided by the consideration of word formation content in the movie. After watching some movies, the Black Hawk Down movie was chosen to be the source of this study.

The movie script has been searched in the internet. Then, the movie script was matched with the movie to know if the movie script has a difference with the movie. The movie script was, then, attached in appendices.

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3.3 Data Analysis

The data analysis was conducted through the following procedures: 1. Identifying

Through the movie script, the acronym, compounding and clipping tokens were identified in the data.

2. Classifying

After identifying all data from the movie script, the data were classified into a table of each category of acronym, compounding and clipping. This method was applied in order to make the data easier to be analyzed. The examples of the tables are shown below.

No Words Acronyms of weapon Frequency Percentage

1. 2. 3. Total

Table 3.1 Acronym of weapon

The table above consisted of 1) number, to know the amount of data, 2) words, to list the data that had been identified as acronym token, 3) acronyms of, to know the full word of acronym token, 4) frequency, to know how often the classified word that used in the data, 5) percentage, making it easier knowing the percentage of the data, and 6) total, to know the total of the frequency and the percentage of acronym tokens.

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No Word Word Components Frequency Percent age N + N Adj + N

1. 2. 3.

Table 3.2 Compounding of military

The compounding table consisted of 1) number, to know the amount of data, 2) word, to list the data that had been identified as compounding token, 3) word component, to know the origin words before undergoing the compounding process, this column divided into two sub-column, there are N+N and Adj+N; the function is to divide the type of compounding token, 4) frequency, to know how often the classified word that used in the data, 5) percentage, to make it easier to know the percentage of the data, and 6) total, to know the total of the frequency and the percentage of compounding tokens.

No. Word Full Words Frequency Percentage

1. 2. 3. Total

Table 3.3 Clipping

The table of clipping consisted of 1) number, to know the amount of data, 2) word, to list the data that had been identified as clipping token, 3) full word, to know the origin words before undergoing the compounding process,

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4) frequency, to know how often the classified word that used in the data, 5) percentage, to make it easier to know the percentage of the data, and 6) total, to know the total of the frequency and the percentage of clipping tokens 3. Calculating

After classifying all data, then the data are calculated into a table of frequency to know the word formation process which is the most frequently used, then the table was combined with the table in classifying data. To count the frequency of each word formation process, the formula that used is:

N = Px 100 % ─

N = the percentage of word formation process which used in the data P = the total tokens of word formation process used in the data Q = the total frequency of word formation process used in the data

4. Analyzing

After calculating the data, then the dataare analyzed in order to get an answer of the research questions. To answer the second question, it is put into a table. The example is shown below.

Item Description

Scene and setting Participants

Ends: Purpose, Goal and Outcome Act Sequence

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Instrumentalities

Norm of Interaction and Interpretation Genre

Table 3.4 SPEAKING analysis of compounding

The SPEAKING analysis consisted of item and description. The item column consisted of 1) Scene and setting, to know the scene and setting of the use token, 2) Participants, to know the participant that included in the use token, 3) End, to know the purpose of the use token, 4) Act sequence, to know the form of the use token, 5) Key, to know the tone that delivered in the use token, 6) Instrumentalities, to know the instrument that used in the use token, 7) Norm of interaction, to know the norm of the use token, and 8) Genre, to find out the genre that used in the use token. While, the description column is to make a clear description for the items that had been explained above. 5. Discussing

This is the final process. In this section, it has a clear description about the result. After that, the data are elaborated in each result, thoroughly on the basis of the analysis, supported by some reference books.

3.4 Closing Remarks

This chapter has described the method of the study. It comprised the description of the design of the study, source of data collection, procedures of data collection and data analysis. The method which has described here is applied in investigating the purposes of the study.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This chapter presents the conclusions and suggestions of the study. The conclusions are drawn based on findings and discussions, while suggestions are specified for further research and also intended for those who are interested in this study.

5.1 Conclusions

The aim of this research is to observe the tokens of word formation types uttered in Black Hawk Down movie script as well as to discover the context of situation leading to the use of those tokens.

Based on the findings and its discussions, there are some conclusions that can be drawn. First, the finding showed that the total number of the target words is 75 tokens. There are 19 acronyms (35 tokens), 19 compounding (26 tokens), and 8 clipping (24 tokens). Moreover, it can be concluded that the most popular word formation process in the movie script is acronym.

Second, the use of those tokens is also various depending on the context of situations, but, the use of acronym, compounding and clipping tokens are mostly used in the form of command and a report.

Third, acronym, compounding and clipping tokens are also used between soldiers or among superior-subordinate, within both formal and informal situations.

5.2 Suggestions

The study of word formation process is reasonably wide. However, this research only focusses on the use of word formation in military communication context. There might be some other fields using more word formation types. Thus, for

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further research on those other fields or other situations and conditions, there are some suggestions that can be considered. First, in order to get good results of the research, it would be better for the researcher to have more literature reviews on the topic. Second, other fields such as economics, law or politics are interesting subjects to be investigated. Third, the internet chat room, newspaper, magazine, song lyrics or blog are also remarkable resource to be observed. The last, some other types of word formation besides acronym, compounding and clipping are also available to be explored.

Hopefully, this study would be valuable for those who are interested to the field of linguistic in particular and communication in general.

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REFERENCES

Anonymous. (n.d.). Black Hawk Down Script.

http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/movie_script.php?movie=black-hawk-down (23 May 2013)

Bauer, Laurie. (1983). English Word-Formation. Cambridge: United Kingdom at the University Press.

Bauman, Richard.,& Sherzer, Joel. (2007). The Ethnography of Speaking. Annual

Review Anthropology, 4, 95-119.

Bull, Victoria. (2011). Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cannon, Garland. (2011). Abbreviations and Acronyms in English Word Formation.

American Speech,64(2), 99-127.

Chaer, A.,& L. Agustina. (2004). Sociolonguistics. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.

Colman, Fran., &Anderson, John. (2004). On Metonymy as Word-Formation: With Special Reference to Old English. English Studies, 6, 547-565.

Ebert, Roger. (2002). Black Hawk Down. Retrieved from http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/black-hawk-down-2002 (23 May 2013)

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Hennick, Monique., Hutter, Inge., & Bailey, Ajay. (2011). Qualitative Research

Methods. London: SAGE Publications.

Hipschman, Ron. (1995). The Secret Language. Retrieved from http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/secret/secret.html (23 May 2013)

Hymes, Dell. (1974). Foundations of Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania.

Kouega, Jean-Paul. (2003). Word Formative Processes in Camfranglais. World

Englishes, 22(4), 511-538.

Littlewood, William. (2007). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: United Kingdom at the University Press.

Marzita, Rahmi., Syarif, Hermawati., &Ardi, Havid. (2013). An Analysis of Word Formation Process of English Slang in Teenager Movie Scripts. English

language and literature e-journal. ISSN 2302-3546.

Nanda, Melisa Nofa., Rosa, Rusdi Noor.,& Ardi, Havid. An Analysis of Word Formation Used in Twilight Novel by Stepfanie Mayer and Twilight Movie Script Written by Melissa Rosenberg. English language and literature e-journal. ISSN 2302-3546.

Pahl, Andreas Gehrs. (2003). Code Names for U.S. Military Projects and Operations. Retrieved from http://www.designation-systems.net/usmilav/codenames.html (23 May 2013)

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Parsch, Andreas. (2003). Code Names for U.S. Military Projects and Operations. Retrieved from http://www.designation-systems.net/usmilav/codenames.html (13 July 2013)

Plag, Ingo. (2003). Word-Formation in English. United Kingdom: The University of Cambridge.

Riley, Sandra R. (2005). Authorized Abbreviations, Brevity Codes, and Acronyms. Washington, DC: Headquarrs Department of the Army.

Sharifi, Shahla., &Karimipour, Amir. (2013). A Comparative Study of Word Formation Processes of Ilami Kurdish and English. Open Journal of Education, 1(3), 83-90.

Swenson, Dr. Russell G. (1997). Defense and Intelligence Abbreviations and

Acronyms. Washington, DC: Joint Military Intelligence College.

Szabo, Rita Brdar.,& Brdar, Mario. (2008). On the Marginality of Lexical Blending.

Journal of University of Osijek, 9(1-2),171-194.

Tahaineh, Yousef. (2012). The Awareness of the English Word-Formation Mechanisms is a Necessity to Make an Autonomous L2 Learner in EFL Context.

Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(6),1105-1113.

Worth, Maggie. (n.d.) The Definition of Script Writing. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/about_6606663_definition-script-writing.html (23 May 2013)

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Yule, George. (1996). The Study of Language. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: University

Press.

Zapata, Prof. Argenis A. (2007). Types of Words and Word-Formation Processes in

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Winda Ratnanila,2013

Word Formation Processes In The Black Hawk Down Movie Script

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The aim of this research is to observe the tokens of word formation types uttered in Black Hawk Down movie script as well as to discover the context of situation leading to the use of those tokens.

Second, the use of those tokens is also various depending on the context of situations, but, the use of acronym, compounding and clipping tokens are mostly used in the form of command and a report.

Third, acronym, compounding and clipping tokens are also used between soldiers or among superior-subordinate, within both formal and informal situations.

5.2 Suggestions

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Winda Ratnanila,2013

Word Formation Processes In The Black Hawk Down Movie Script

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu

Hopefully, this study would be valuable for those who are interested to the field of linguistic in particular and communication in general.

(3)

Winda Ratnanila,2013

Word Formation Processes In The Black Hawk Down Movie Script

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu REFERENCES

Anonymous. (n.d.). Black Hawk Down Script.

http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/movie_script.php?movie=black-hawk-down (23 May 2013)

Bauer, Laurie. (1983). English Word-Formation. Cambridge: United Kingdom at the University Press.

Bauman, Richard.,& Sherzer, Joel. (2007). The Ethnography of Speaking. Annual

Review Anthropology, 4, 95-119.

Bull, Victoria. (2011). Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cannon, Garland. (2011). Abbreviations and Acronyms in English Word Formation.

American Speech,64(2), 99-127.

Chaer, A.,& L. Agustina. (2004). Sociolonguistics. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.

Colman, Fran., &Anderson, John. (2004). On Metonymy as Word-Formation: With Special Reference to Old English. English Studies, 6, 547-565.

Ebert, Roger. (2002). Black Hawk Down. Retrieved from http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/black-hawk-down-2002 (23 May 2013)

Fandrych, Ingrid. (2008). A Multi-Level Approach to Acronyms, Blends and Clippings. Nawa Journal of Language and Communication, 2(2), 105-123.