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1. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of language usage. Pragmatics studies how people comprehend and produce a communicative act or speech act in a
concrete speech situation which is usually a conversation. Levinson 1983:1 asserts that “Pragmatics is the study of the relation of signs to
interpreters. And Peccei 1999:2 explains that “pragmatics concentrates on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic
knowledge alone and takes into account knowledge about the physical and social world.” It can be said that pragmatics is the study of the context to
achieve meaning. 2.
Speech Act
Speech act theory is basically concern with the function of language uttered by the speaker. Renkema 1993:21 emphasized that “in
speech act theory, languages seen as a form of acting.” It means that language perform a certain acting. Language uttered by the speaker must
have a certain function that the speaker wants to show herhis intention through languages. Moreover, Austin 1969 gave three main parts of
speech act as follows: a.
Locution : the actual form of words and sounds uttered by the speaker which means something direct utterance or indirect utterance
b. Illocution : what the speaker is doing by uttering those words
function of utterance. Fauziati 2009:175 asserted that it is “the act performed when saying something. It includes acts of betting,
promising, ordering, warning, etc.” c.
Perlocution : the actual result of the locution execution. According to Fauziati 2009:175, “perlocutionary act is the actual effect achieved
‘by saying’ on hearers.”
3. Language Form
a. Word
According to Leonard Bloomfield in Katamba, 1994:11, word is “a minimum free form”. It means that word is the smallest meaningful
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linguistic unit that can be used on its own. Katamba 1994:54 said that word has classes; they are noun, adjective, verb, and adverb.
b. Phrase
Hornby 1995:869 said that phrase is a group of words without verb, especially one that forms part of sentence.
c. Clause
Azar 1992:238 stated that clause is a group of word containing a subject and a verb.
d. Sentence
For Frank, sentence are classified in two ways, they are: 1
Classification of Sentences by Types a
Declarative Sentence Frank 1972:221 said that the subject and predicate of
declarative sentence have normal word order. The sentence ends with a full stop or a period ..
b Interrogative Sentence
Frank 1972:221 asserted that the subject and auxiliary are often reversed in interrogative sentence. And the sentence ends
with a question mark ?. c
Imperative Sentence Frank 1972:221 explained that only the predicate is
expressed. It uses the simple form of verb and regardless of person or tense. It ends with a period in writing and a drop in
pitch in speech. d
Exclamatory Sentence Frank 1972:221 told that exclamatory sentence is begin with
an exclamatory phrase consisting of what or how plus part of
the predicate. It is followed by the subject and the balance of the predicate. The exclamatory sentence ends with an
exclamation mark .
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2 Classification of Number of Full Predications
a Simple Sentence
It consists of one main clauseindependent clause. According to Frank 1972:223, it has only one full predication in the form of
an independent clausemain clause. b
Compound Sentence It consists of two or more main clausesindependent clauses
combined with coordinative conjunction, such as: and, or, but. For Frank 1972:221, it has two or more full predications in
the form of independent clausesmain clauses. c
Complex Sentence It consists of one main clause and one or more sub clause
combined with subordinative conjunction d
Compound-Complex Sentence It consists of two main clauses and one or more sub clause
combined with subordinative conjunction.
4. Directive Utterance
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