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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter provides the details about some theories that become the fundamental of the study. This chapter consists of two parts, namely theoretical
description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description elaborates some prominent theories related to the research. The theories are 1 the model of
the design 2 the overview of stories and storytelling technique, 3 senior high school students grade eleven, 4 the understanding of integrated language-
learning approach, and 5 School-Based Curriculum. The theoretical framework focuses on the summary of the theoretical description and the steps of designing
the materials.
A. Theoretical Description
1. The Model of the Design
The writer uses Kemp’s model to design the materials. Kemp 1977: 6
states in his book that his design is based on the system approach. System approach consists of general plans used in instructional material design which are
already arranged in sequence. Furthermore, these plans support one another and are related to each other. Kemp does not imply a static model, but a flexible one.
The design can be said flexible since it enables the material designer to apply it in any level. Kemp’s design consists of eight parts 1977: 19-91. They are as
follows:
a. Determining the Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
A designer should decide the goals of designing the materials, select the most appropriate topics for the students, and draw the general purposes of
objectives. According to Kemp 1977: 14, goals can be based on three factors. They are “society, learners, and subject areas.” To achieve the goals
that have been drawn, a designer should select the topics and organize them well from the simple one to the more complicated one. Stating what the
teacher expects the students to achieve from every topic will also help to accomplish the objectives.
b. Observing Learners’ Characteristics
Since the design materials are dedicated primarily to the learners, learners’ characteristics, needs, abilities, and interests will take big consideration in
constructing the materials. c.
Determining Learning Objectives The designer should specify the objectives of each topic explicitly and
clearly so that the learners are able to understand and achieve them. The objectives are any abilities or behavior that can be measured and observed
clearly. d.
Selecting Subject Content Subject content is like a bridge which helps the learners to achieve the
objectives based on the needs. Two elements included in subject content are “organizing content and task analysis.” Organizing content aims to put the
content in a good order so that it will be learnable for the students. Task analysis is conducted to manage the procedures of teaching in a well
sequenced order so that the procedures can support the learning. e.
Carrying out Pre-Assessment Two kinds of pre-assessment are conducted. They are “prerequisite testing
and pretesting.” Prerequisite testing is carried out to obtain the information about the students’ background knowledge towards the topics. Meanwhile,
pretesting is accomplished to find out how far the students achieve the objectives. However, a designer can skip this step and use needs analysis as
the basis of developing materials. f.
Selecting the Teaching Learning Activities and Resources The designer should provide the most meaningful way to build the
teaching-learning activities including the most appropriate methods and techniques in such a way that the objectives will be achieved successfully in
time. g.
Preparing Support Services Support services such as “funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel”
Kemp, 1971: 84 influence much to the design plan. The absence of one element will really affect the other elements. Therefore, a designer should not
ignore these factors in designing the materials. A designer should prepare any facilities which are likely to help the designing of the materials.
h. Doing the Evaluation
The last step is evaluating the students’ learning by finding out how far the students accomplish the objectives. Furthermore, the designer will do some
“revision and re-evaluation” Kemp, 1971: 84 to any stages which need improvement. Evaluation stage will show whether the students can implement
the materials successfully. Figure 2.1 shows the summary of Kemp’s model.
Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Model Kemp, 1977: 9
The diagram shows the relationship between one step to the others. The steps are interdependent so that one step will influence the others. However, those
steps are flexible. A material designer is able to apply the model to any level. For this reason, the writer chooses Kemp’s model rather than other models.
2. The Overview of Stories and Storytelling