Instructional Design Models Theoretical Description

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the writer is going to present some theories related to the study in to two subchapters, Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework.

A. Theoretical Description

In this section, the writer would like to discuss some related theories concerning Instructional Design Models, Reading Comprehension, Writing, the Integration of Reading Writing, Communicative Language Teaching, Task-Based Learning and School-Based Curriculum.

1. Instructional Design Models

a. Kemp’s Model The first model that the writer used as the related literature is Kemp’s model. The designers are supposed to seek out information about the objectives of the instructional design, the activities and resources, and the evaluation of the instructional design. The plan is designed to supply some questions; they are What must be learned? Objective, What procedure and resources will work best to reach the design learning levels? Activities and resources, and How will we know when the required learning has taken place? Evaluation. Kemp 1977 offers eight elements to design the program development. The following are the stages designed by Kemp: 1 Goals, topics, and general purposes: consider goals, list topics, and state the general purposes for each topic. 2 Learner’s characteristics: numerate the important characteristic of the learner for whom the instruction to be design. 3 Learning objectives: specify the learning materials to be achieved in term of measurable students’ behavioral outcomes. 4 Subject content: design the learning materials that support the attainment for each specific instructional objective. 5 Pre-assessment: develop pre-test to determine the students’ background and present level of knowledge about the topic. 6 Teaching learning activities and resources: select teachinglearning activities and instructional resources that can be applied to achieve the specific instructional objective appropriate for accomplish each objective. 7 Support services: coordinate such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional. 8 Evaluation: evaluate students’ learning in the term of their accomplishment of objectives. This step should be done in order to revise and re-evaluate any phase of the plan that needs improvement. Goal, Topics, and Learning Objectves Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977:9 Kemps reminds that this process of developing program is flexible since among the eight elements are independent. In this study, there are some steps chosen by the writer, they are formulating goal, topics, and learning objectives, selecting teaching-learning activities, evaluating, and revising. b. Yalden’s Model This model has been based on the difficulties on syllabus construction during the last decade and the “communicativeness” of learning outcomes expected. According to Yalden 1987: 97 , after knowing the type of syllabus that will be applied, the teacher should prepare himself in developing the instructional materials. The process of constructing the type of syllabus is as follows: 1 Needs survey. It should be held before stating the purpose in order to find the community or local needs. 2 Description of purpose. It is prepared in term of: the characteristics of the students, and the skills of the students on entry to and on exit from the program. 3 Selection and development of syllabus type 4 The proto syllabus production that describes the language itself and language use to be covered in the program. 5 The pedagogical production that develops the teaching materials, learning and teaching approaches which consist of testing sequence and decisions on testing instruments. 6 Development and implementation of classroom procedure 6.1 Development of classroom procedures 6.1.1 Selection of exercise types and teaching techniques 6.1.2 Preparation of lesson plan 6.1.3 Preparation of weekly schedules 6.2 Teacher training: briefing and workshops on 6.2.1 Principles 6.2.2 Desired outcomes 6.2.3 Exploitation or creation of teaching materials 7 Evaluation. It describes the evaluation of the students, the evaluation of program, and the evaluation of teaching. Figure 2.2: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model Yalden, 1987: 88 Here, the writer used needs analysis in order to get the learner’s need and interest. The writer combined the two models into a new model, then it is used by the writer in constructing an instructional design.

2. Reading