a. Lexical cohesion
i. Reiteration
Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of lexical item, at one end of the scale; the use of a general word to refer back to a
lexical item, at the other end of the scale; and a number of things in between the use of synonym, near-synonym, or superordinate Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 278 Let us
illustrate each of these in turn. a.
There was a large mushroom growing near her, about the same height as herself; and, when she had looked under it, it occurred to her that she might
as well look and see what was on the top of it. She stretched herself up on tiptoe, and peeped over the edge of the
mushroom,… b.
Accordingly… I took leave, and turned to the ascent of the peak. The climb is perfectly easy…
c. Then quickly rose Sir Bedivere, and ran,
And leaping down the ridges lightly, plung’d Among the bulrush
beds, and clutch’d the sword And lightly wheel’d and threw it. The great brand
Made light’nings in the splendor of the moon d.
Henry’s bought himself a new Jaguar. He practically lives in the car Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 278
In a, there is
repetition
: mushroom refers back to mushroom. In b climb refers back to ascent, of which it is a
synonym
. In c brand refers back to sword, of which it is a
near-synonym
. In d, car refers back to Jaguar; and car is a
superordinate
of Jaguar
– that is, a name for a more general class Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 278 All those instances have in common the fact that lexical item refers back to
another, to which it is related by having common referent Halliday and Hasan, 1976:278 When we talk about reiteration, therefore, we are including not only the
repetition of the same lexical item but also the occurrence of a related item, which may be anything from a synonym or near synonym of the original to a general word
dominating the entire class. For example: I turned to the ascent of the peak. a.
The
ascent
is perfectly easy same lexical item
b. The
climb
is perfectly easy a synonym c.
The
task
is perfectly easy a superordinate
d. The
thing
is perfectly easy a general noun
Halliday and Hasan, 1976:278
ii. Collocation
Collocation is regarded as the most problematical part of lexical cohesion, cohesion that is achieved through the association of lexical items that regularly co-
occur Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 284. According to Halliday and Hasan, the form of collocation can be so many, such as:
a. Pairs of synonym- near synonym. For example climb and ascent, beam and
rafter, disease and illness. b.
Pairs of superordinates. For example elm and tree, boy and child, skip and play.
c. Pairs of opposites of various kinds, complementaries such as boys and girl,
stand up and sit down, antonyms such as like and hate, wet and dry, crowded and deserted, and converses such as order and obey.
d. Pairs of words drawn from the same ordered series. For example dollar and
cent, north and south, colonel and brigadier. e.
Pairs drawn from unordered lexical sets. For example basement and roof, road and rail, red and green.
f. Pairs which often stand in some recognizable semantic relation to one
another, they may be related as part to whole, like car and brake, box and lid, or as part to part, like mouth and chin, verse and chorus; they may be
co-hyponyms of the same superordinate term,
ie
both members of the same more general class, such as chair table both hyponyms of furniture, walk
and drive both hyponyms of go. g.
Pairs whose meaning relation are not easy to classify in semantic tems, such as laugh and joke, blade and sharp, garden and dig, ill and doctor, try
and succeed, etc. 1976: 284.
The cohesive effect is not limited to a pair of words. It is very common for long cohesive chain to be built up out of lexical relations of this kind, with words
pattern like candle, flame, and flicker, hair, comb, curl, and wave, poetry, literature, reader, writer, and style, and also sky, sunshine, cloud, and rain. Such patterns occur
freely both within the same sentence and across sentence boundaries; they are largely independent of grammatical structure Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 286. In brief,
collocation is not limited only by pair of words but it can occur as long cohesive chains of words which share similar environment.
b. Grammatical cohesion
Grammatical cohesion deals with reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. Let us take a look at those forms one by one:
i. Reference
According to Halliday and Hasan, what characterizes this particular type of cohesion, which we are calling reference, is the specific nature of the information that
is signaled for retrieval. In the case of reference the information to be retrieved is the referential meaning, the identity of the particular thing or class of things that is being
referred to; and the cohesion lies in the continuity of reference, whereby the same thing enters into the discourse a second time 1976: 31.
Reference is a semantic relation. Since the relationship is on the semantic level, the reference item is in no way constrained to match the grammatical class of
the item it refers to Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 32. So, what must be looked carefully are the semantic properties, not the similarities of the grammar. This is also
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