English phatic communication of graduate students in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University.

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xvi ABSTRACT

Gatri Asti Putri Indarti. 2016. English Phatic Communication of Graduate Students in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

In interaction, people might not only share information, but they also show a willingness to talk or to open a contact with others. However, they might not realize that such kind of communication is quite necessary to be applied in society. This kind of communication is called phatic communication dealing with pragmatic study.

This present study attempts to answer three research questions. First, it deals with the communicative functions. Second, it relates to the functions of phatic communication. Last, it reveals the differences in using language referring to the communicative functions or functions of phatic communication.

The participants were the graduate students in English language studies of Sanata Dharma University in batch 2015. This present study was carried out with sample study in which the participants were chosen randomly. Then, they were divided into three groups of gender, namely males, females, and males-females. From the three groups, it was found that there were two couples of male students, two couples of female students, and two couples of a male and a female student. After that, they created free conversation and the conversation was recorded. In this case, the students were aware of being recorded. The produced utterances became the focus of the analysis.

The first finding shows that the graduate students performed various communicative functions of phatic communication in conversation. They expressed greeting, parting, mentioning names or titles, apologizing to open conversation, avoiding the silence when talking, changing the topic of conversation, expressing listening noises, agreeing on something, apologizing, expressing wishes, thanking, giving compliments, saying bad words, mocking, joking, pacifying, encouraging, and sympathizing. Those communicative functions exist depending on the contexts, partners, and topics.

The second finding shows that the graduate students had conversation in order to show all functions of phatic communication. Those functions are avoiding the silence, starting a conversation, making chit-chat, making gossip, keeping talking, expressing solidarity, creating harmony, creating comfort, expressing empathy, expressing friendship, and expressing respect. In this case, the gradate students’ communicative functions excluding making gossip also serve politeness function.

The last finding reveals that the graduate students have several differences in using language; topic, swear word or taboo language, and gossip. First, conversation topics created by the graduate students are about activities, assignments, subjects, place for sports, plans, likes and dislikes, previous and new class situation, motivation for choosing certain subject area, game, origin, teaching experience, job, and miscellaneous topics. Second, the male students

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xvii

expressed swear word or taboo language, but the female students did not do that. Last, the male students made gossip, but the female students did not create gossip.

This present study hopefully can give valuable contribution for people who learn, apply, and analyze language. In this case, it is important to recognize phatic communicative functions and functions, and to master phatic communication in order to create or maintain social bonds in society. Besides, this study also has its shortcomings and therefore it can be developed by other researchers to conduct further research on other issues related to phatic communication.

Keywords: phatic communication, communicative functions, phatic communication functions, conversational styles

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xviii ABSTRAK

Gatri Asti Putri Indarti. 2016. English Phatic Communication of Graduate Students in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Dalam sebuah interaksi, orang tidak hanya berbagi informasi, tetapi mereka juga menunjukkan kesediaan untuk berbicara atau memulai komunikasi dengan orang lain. Namun, mereka mungkin tidak menyadari bahwa komunikasi semacam itu sangat diperlukan untuk diterapkan di masyarakat. Jenis komunikasi ini disebut komunikasi fatis dengan kajian pragmatik.

Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti menjawab tiga pertanyaan. Pertanyaan pertama berkaitan dengan fungsi komunikatif. Pertanyaan kedua berhubungan dengan fungsi komunikasi fatis. Pertanyaan terakhir menunjukkan perbedaan penggunaan bahasa berdasarkan fungsi komunikatif atau fungsi komunikasi fatis.

Penelitian ini melibatkan mahasiswa/i pasca sarjana program kajian Bahasa inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma angkatan 2015. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan mengambil beberapa sampel secara acak. Setelah itu, mereka dibagi dalam tiga kelompok berdasarkan jenis kelamin, yakni pasangan laki-laki, pasangan perempuan, dan pasangan campuran laki-laki – perempuan. Hasil yang didapat adalah dua pasang mahasiswa, dua pasang mahasiswi, dan dua pasang mahasiswa dan mahasiswi. Mereka membuat percakapan bebas. Dalam hal ini, mereka mengetahui bahwa percakapannya direkam oleh peneliti. Ujaran yang dihasilkan menjadi fokus analisis dalam penelitian ini.

Temuan pertama menunjukan bahwa mahasiswa/i pasca sarjana menggunakan bentuk komunikasi fatis dengan berbagai cara. Ekspresi yang dihasilkan adalah mengucapkan salam bertemu, mengucapkan salam berpisah, menyebutkan nama atau gelar, meminta maaf untuk memulai percakapan, menghindari kesenyapan ketika sedang berbicara, mengubah topik percakapan, memberikan ungkapan sebagai tanda sedang mendengarkan, menyatakan persetujuan atas sesuatu, meminta maaf, menyatakan harapan, mengungkapkan ucapan terima kasih, memberikan pujian, mengatakan kata kotor, mengolok-olok, bercanda, menenangkan seseorang, memberikan semangat, dan menyatakan simpati. Ekspresi-ekspresi tersebut tergantung dari konteks, pasangan atau lawan bicara, dan topik.

Temuan kedua menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa/i pasca sarjana menghasilkan bentuk komunikasi fatis yang berbeda untuk menunjukkan semua fungsi komunikasi fatis. Fungsi komunikasi fatis yang dihasilkan adalah untuk memecahkan kesenyapan, memulai percakapan, melakukan basa-basi, melakukan gosip, menjaga agar percakapan tetap berlangsung, mengungkapkan solidaritas, menciptakan harmoni, menciptakan perasaan nyaman, mengungkapkan empati, mengungkapkan persahabatan, dan mengungkapkan penghormatan. Dalam hal ini, bentuk komunikasi fatis yang dihasilkan kecuali melakukan gosip juga sebagai fungsi kesantunan.

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xix

Temuan terakhir menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa/i pasca sarjana mempunyai beberapa perbedaan dalam penggunaan bahasa, antara lain; topik, umpatan atau bahasa tabu, dan gosip. Pertama, topik percakapan yang dibahas adalah kegiatan, tugas, mata kuliah, tempat olahraga, rencana, kesukaan dan ketidaksukaan, situasi kelas yang lama dan baru, motivasi memilih konsentrasi, permainan, asal, pengalaman mengajar, pekerjaan, dan lain-lain. Kedua, umpatan diekspresikan oleh mahasiswa, tetapi tidak dilakukan oleh mahasiswi. Ketiga, gosip ditemukan pada percakapan antara mahasiswa, tetapi tidak ditemukan pada percakapan antara mahasiswi.

Penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan masukan kepada orang-orang yang belajar, mengaplikasikan, dan menganalisa bahasa. Dalam hal ini, penelitian ini penting agar dapat mengetahui bentuk dan fungsi fatis, serta menguasai komunikasi fatis untuk menciptakan atau menjaga hubungan sosial dalam masyarakat. Disamping itu, penelitian ini juga terdapat kekurangan sehingga nantinya dapat dikembangkan oleh peneliti lain untuk melakukan penelitian lebih lanjut terhadap isu lain yang masih berkaitan dengan komunikasi fatis.

Kata kunci: komunikasi fatis, fungsi komunikatif, fungsi komunikasi fatis, gaya percakapan

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ENGLISH PHATIC COMMUNICATION OF GRADUATE STUDENTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES OF

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) in

English Language Studies

Gatri Asti Putri Indarti 146332029

Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

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ENGLISH PHATIC COMMUNICATION OF GRADUATE STUDENTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES OF

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) in

English Language Studies

Gatri Asti Putri Indarti 146332029

Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta

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A THESIS

ENGLISH PHATIC COMMUNICATION OF GRADUATE STUDENTS IN ENGLISE LANGUAGE STUI}IES OF

SANATA DHARMA

UNWERSITY

Approved by

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Fr. B. AIip, M.Pd., M.A.

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A THESIS

ENGLISH PHATIC COMMUNICATION OF GRAI}UATE STUDENTS

IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES OF

SANATA DHARMA

UNIYERSITY

Presented by

Gatri Asti Putri Indarti

Student Number: 146332029

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Yogyakarta, 16 Augost 2016 The Graduate School Director

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are mine. I understand the full consequences including degree cancelation if the writer took somebody else's ideas, phrases, and sentences without a proper reference.

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertandatangan dibawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama

Nomor Mahasiswa : 146332029

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

BNGLISH PHATIC COMMUNICATION OF' GRADUATE STUDENTS

IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES OF SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma

hak

untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya

di

internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya

selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pemyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada _{tanggal 5 Agustus 2016}

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DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to

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vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Allah SWT for His grace and blessing without which I could not have finished this thesis on time. Additionally, this work is the result of my personal efforts, hard work, and prayers along with the support of so many people. Thus, I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to those who have helped and supported me in the completion of this work.

I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., for his guidance, advice, support, patience, and time. My thanks also go to Dr. B. B. Dwijatomoko, M.A., who has given useful comments on my thesis. I also thank Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum., for his worthy feedbacks on my thesis. Then, I would also thank F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D., who has given me some valuable advice for my thesis. I am also highly indebted to Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, for his suggestions regarding the topic of my thesis. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. J. Bismoko, for giving his thoughtful ideas. I am also profoundly grateful to Paulus Sarwoto, S.S., M.A., Dr. Alb. Budi Susanto S.J., Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D., and J. S. M. Pudji Lestari, S.Pd., M.Hum., who have helped me widen my knowledge during my study. I am also grateful to staff members of the graduate program in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University, Mbak Marni and Pak Aloysius Mulyadi, for their help and support.

My greatest gratitude also goes to my family who always support me in finishing this thesis. I would also thank Pak Jumanto, a lecturer in Faculty of Humanities of Dian Nuswantoro University in Semarang, who has permitted me to conduct the study on phatic. My heartfelt thanks also go to other lecturers in Faculty of Humanities of Dian Nuswantoro University in Semarang, Pak Raden Arief Nugroho, Pak Sunardi, and Pak Setyo Prasiyanto C., who have given me helping hands in my study. Likewise, I truly appreciate the participants for giving me the time to take the recordings. I am also much obliged to the proofreaders for spending the time to check several parts of my thesis. Last but not least, I also thank my ELS friends, especially batch 2014, for their help and encouragement.

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viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY... iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN ... v

DEDICATION ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS... viii

LIST OF TABLES ... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xiv

TRANSCRIPTION CONVENTIONS... xv

ABSTRACT... xvi

ABSTRAK ... xviii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Problem Limitation... 5

C. Problem Formulation ... 6

D. Research Goals ... 6

E. Benefits of the Study ... 7

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Review of Related Theories ... 9

1. Communication ... 9

2. The Concept of Phatic Communion as Phatic Communication... 14

3. Phatic Functions ... 16

a. Avoiding the Silence, Breaking the Silence, or Saying Something Obligatory... 19

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c. Making Chit-Chat or Relatively Unfocused Conversation... 20

d. Making Gossip ... 20

e. Keeping Talking ... 21

f. Expressing Solidarity... 21

g. Creating Harmony... 22

h. Creating Comfort ... 22

i. Expressing Empathy ... 23

j. Expressing Friendship or Camaraderie... 23

k. Expressing Respect or Deference ... 24

l. Expressing Politeness ... 24

5. Women and Men’s Conversational Styles... 25

a. Topic ... 26

b. Swear Word or Taboo Language ... 26

c. Gossip ... 27

d. Interruption ... 28

e. Back-Channel Response ... 29

B. Review of Related Studies... 30

C. Theoretical Framework... 37

D. Graduate Students in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University ... 38

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY A. Data of the Study and Data Source... 39

B. Approach of the Study... 41

C. Data Collection Process... 41

D. Data Analysis... 42

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION A. Communicative Functions ... 45

1. Avoiding the Silence when Talking... 47

2. Expressing Listening Noises... 48

3. Changing the Topic of Conversation ... 50

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5. Mentioning Names or Titles ... 53

6. Giving Compliements ... 55

7. Joking... 56

8. Parting ... 57

9. Saying Bad Words ... 58

10. Mocking ... 59

11. Greeting... 60

12. Thanking ... 61

13. Apologizing... 62

14. Expressing Wishes ... 63

15. Pacifying ... 63

16. Encouraging ... 65

17. Sympathizing ... 65

18. Apologizing to Open Conversation ... 66

B. Functions of Phatic Communication ... 67

1. Keeping Talking... 69

2. Making Chit-Chat or Relatively Unfocused Conversation ... 71

a. Opening... 71

b. Content... 73

c. Closing ... 74

3. Creating Harmony... 76

4. Making Gossip ... 78

a. Opening... 78

b. Content... 79

c. Closing ... 81

5. Creating Comfort ... 82

6. Starting a Conversation or Opening a Contact ... 84

7. Avoiding the Silence, Breaking the Silence, or Saying Something Obligatory ... 85

8. Expressing Friendship or Camaraderie ... 87

9. Expressing Solidarity ... 88

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11. Expressing Respect or Deference ... 91

C. Women and Men's Conversational Styles... 92

1. Topic ... 96

2. Swear Word or Taboo Language ... 98

3. Gossip ... 103

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions... 102

B. Suggestions ... 104

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 106

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xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Design Features of Human Language ...10

Table 3.1 List of Participants ...40

Table 3.2 Example of Table Analysis of Phatic Communication ...42

Table 4.1 Distribution of Communicative Functions...46

Table 4.2 Distribution of Phatic Communication Functions...68

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xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Model of Communication ...12 Figure 2.2 Theoretical Framework of Phatic Communication...17

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xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Analysis of Phatic Communication Produced by the First Couple (Socrates and Mello)...110 Appendix 2. Analysis of Phatic Communication Produced by the Second Couple (Aan and Mello) ...116 Appendix 3. Analysis of Phatic Communication Produced by the Third Couple

(Sri and Maria) ...133 Appendix 4. Analysis of Phatic Communication Produced by the Fourth Couple

(Star and Hayu)...145 Appendix 5. Analysis of Phatic Communication Produced by the Fifth Couple

(Socrates and Rose) ...150 Appendix 6. Analysis of Phatic Communication Produced by the Sixth Couple

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TRANSCRIPTION CONVENTIONS

Symbol Meaning

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WORDS IN CAPITALS ( )

(words within parentheses) =

…

Dash–then talk [silent]

[laughing]

Uncertainty

Counter-expectation Termination

Parceling of talk or breathing time Emphatic stress or increased volume Unclear word

Guess at unclear word Overlap

Short hesitation False start or restart Silent moment

Laughing at something Source: Eggins and Slade (1997:2-5)

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xvi ABSTRACT

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xvii

expressed swear word or taboo language, but the female students did not do that. Last, the male students made gossip, but the female students did not create gossip.

Keywords: phatic communication, communicative functions, phatic communication functions, conversational styles

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xviii ABSTRAK

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xix

Kata kunci: komunikasi fatis, fungsi komunikatif, fungsi komunikasi fatis, gaya percakapan

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the introduction of the study that is divided into five parts. The first part is the background of the study providing ideas and reasons of carrying out the study. The second part is the problem limitation in which the present researcher needs to limit the scope of the study. The third part is the problem formulation that mentions the questions of the study. The fourth part is the research goals explaining the goals of the study related to the research questions. The fifth part is the benefits of the study that describe the contribution of this study to English Language Studies and other fields.

A. Background of the Study

As social beings, it is surely that people make interaction with others since they live together in society and do have to use language as a means of communication. The language they use plays an important role to express thoughts, feelings, or ideas in order to communicate with others. In communication, people need to pay attention a lot to speaker or listener, message, code, and signal. In addition, they need to see others’ proficiency in creating a successful communication, especially for face-to-face communication.

In such communication, people need to use language properly, that is, to give proper utterances based on contexts. This kind of communication is a verbal communication viewed as one of the ways to communicate between speakers and listeners directly. In a verbal communication, people might not employ utterances for sharing information, yet they want to show a willingness to talk to another in

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order to open or to keep open a channel of communication (Wardhaugh, 2006:285). Thus, this kind of verbal communication is called phatic aiming to build or maintain social relationship between speakers and listeners.

The term phatic has been developed into phatic communion coined by Malinowski (1923). It is describedas “a type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words” (Malinowski, 1923:315). In addition, phatic communion can also be described as “communication between people which is not intended to seek or convey information but has the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact” (Richards and Schmidt, 2010:432). It means that people use language to communicate and to create a good social relationship with others.

Moreover, phatic communion is ‘talking small’ in which talk is “aimless, prefatory, obvious, uninteresting, sometimes suspect and even irrelevant, but it includes the part of the process of fulfilling human needs for social cohesiveness and mutual recognition” (Coupland, 2000:3).The present researcher assumes that ‘talking small’ might be boring things. However, phatic communion is still considered as necessary skill used in everyday talk since the use of small talk can showone’s abilityto communicate with people in society.

Another term for phatic communion is phatic communication showing the same purpose. Jumanto (2014) argues that the term phatic communication refers to Jakobson’s language function and Richard and Schmidt’s phatic definition. In this case, Jakobson mentions one of the language functions, phatic, referring to the term contact (Jakobson, 1960:355). Besides, Richards and Schmidt (2010:432) also refer to the term social contact in the definition. Therefore, the terms contact

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and social contact define that phatic communion is a kind of communication. Then, it appears the term phatic communication as “a verbal communication between speakers and hearers to maintain the social relationship between them, not to give an emphasis on information content of the communication”(Jumanto, 2014:10). In other words, phatic communication refers to the social function rather than the information content.

Phatic communication or communion is also known as small talk. Although it is small and simple, some people might ignore it and do not realize the importance of it. In this case, “Small talk is no small thing. It is a valuable personal and professional thread that connects people” (Fine, 2005:10). It is clearly stated that small talk is something valuable that can connect people to build social relationship in communication.

The present researcher believes that phatic communication is used in informal and formal situation in Indonesia or other countries. For example, in Indonesia, people communicate using Indonesian, Javanese, or other vernacular languages as their daily communication. In certain institutions found in Indonesia, such as offices, schools, universities, or other institutions, people likely to speak foreign languages, particularly English in certain occasion. Then, it is not possible if they only communicate to share information. In this case, they might also use language to communicate with others freely and aimlessly (Malinowski, 1923:313).

In using language, people with different gender might have different conversational styles. Those styles are such as pronunciation, vocabulary choice, grammar, interruption, back-channel response, topic, swear word or taboo

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language, gossip, and other styles (Wray, Trott, and Bloomer, 1998:139). The differences show that male and female have different culture and therefore they interact differently. Holmes (1995:7) emphasizes that different gender is socialized into different culture. In addition, male and female have different sound, and might show different manners and grammatical form in communication. Those differences are as the variations in regional speech and matters of usage (Frank and Anshen, 1983:25).

In this present study, phatic communication and conversational styles become the focus of this study. The participants are the graduate students in English language studies of Sanata Dharma University in batch 2015. At least, there are four reasons for conducting this study. Firstly, Sanata Dharma University has good quality for its English. Secondly, the graduate students in English language studies are as the participants because they have been learning English for several years. Moreover, they must have a sufficient English proficiency confirmed by TOEFL score when registering for the graduate program. Thirdly, it is believed that the graduate students in batch 2015 attempt to adapt to new situations and to get very close to new friends. Lastly, based on the observation, the graduate students mostly speak Indonesian outside the class although their English communication skill might be satisfactory.

Above all, the concern is to see the nature of conversation. In this point, the present researcher attempts to identify their communicative functions and functions of phatic communication. Besides, this study is also to explore certain conversational styles produced by different couples related to the communicative functions and functions of phatic communication.

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B. Problem Limitation

The present researcher believes that studying phatic communication might arise various issues, such as politeness, power and solidarity, and other issues. However, it seems impossible to discuss all the issues in this present study. Therefore, it is set to be more specific and has several limitations.

First, this present study focuses on conversation of six couples of graduate students involving two couples of male students, two couples of female students, and two couples of a male and a female student. It aims to reveal different conversational styles related to the communicative functions and functions of phatic communication. Since it is only a case study, the data is then limited. The result of this study might only show representative findings in English language studies at Sanata Dharma University in batch 2015.

Second, this present study focuses on verbal communication, namely utterances. The utterances are to see the communicative functions and functions of phatic communication produced by the graduate students. The utterances show the graduate students’communication skill in English.

Third, the analysis of phatic communication functions, especially politeness is not analyzed. It is considered that all of phatic functions are to express politeness excluding making gossip. Therefore, it is better only to focus on the other functions of phatic communication.

Fourth, the present researcher takes into account that the graduate students might use different ways of using language related to the communicative functions or functions of phatic communication. This only explores three conversational styles produced by two couples of male students, two couples of

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female students, and two couples of a male and a female student when using language. The styles analyzed are topic, swear word or taboo language, and gossip.

C. Problem Formulation

The present researcher proposes three research questions. The research questions are addressed as follows.

1. What communicative functions of phatic communication are found in the graduate students’ conversation?

2. What functions of phatic communication are found in the graduate students’ conversation?

3. In what ways do the graduate students in different groups of gender use language differently related to communicative functions or functions of phatic communication?

D. Research Goals

Based on the problem formulation, this present study reveals three main goals. Firstly, it aims to find out the communicative functions of phatic communication produced by the graduate students in English Language Studies at Sanata Dharma University in batch 2015. To answer the first question, the present researcher pays attention to utterances showing appropriate communicative functions of phatic communication. The communicative functions can be performed as greeting, mentioning names or titles, parting, commenting on something obvious, interrupting, starting a conversation, apologizing, avoiding silence when talking, changing topic of conversation, expressing listening noises, expressing wishes, congratulating, agreeing on something, thanking, giving

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compliments, criticizing indirectly, saying bad words, mocking, joking, pacifying, encouraging, and sympathizing.

Secondly, it aims to find out the functions of phatic communication produced by the graduate students in English Language Studies at Sanata Dharma University in batch 2015. The present researcher needs to focus on the utterances and the communicative functions as the first findings to get the suitable functions of phatic communication. The functions of phatic communication are used for avoiding the silence, starting a conversation or opening a contact, making chit-chat, making gossip, keeping talking, expressing solidarity, creating harmony, creating comfort, expressing empathy, expressing friendship, expressing respect, and expressing politeness. If the ten functions of phatic communication appear in conversation except making gossip, those functions also serve politeness as the function of phatic communication.

Thirdly, it aims to reveal the ways the graduate students in different groups of gender, namely the couples of male students, the couples of female students, and the couples of a male and a female student use language differently related to the communicative functions or functions of phatic communication. This refers to several kinds of conversational styles; topic, swear word or taboo language, and gossip. In this case, those conversational styles are chosen to prove the existing theories.

E. Benefits of the Study

This present study hopefully gives theoretical and practical benefits. Theoretically, it can give contribution to English Language Studies in recognizing phatic communication, the communicative functions of phatic communication, the

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functions of phatic communication, and other issues related to phatic communication. It is also important to comprehend several related theories of phatic communication.

Practically, this present study gives benefits for some groups of people. It is mainly for people who learn language, apply it, and analyze it as well. Those people are English learners, teachers or lecturers, English community, readers, other researchers, and the present researcher herself.

First, for English learners, it is expected that they can master phatic communication in order to create good relationship among others. Second, for teachers or lecturers, phatic communication can be beneficial in the teaching-learning process to make the class alive. Even, the use of phatic communication can create good relationship between students and teachers or lecturers. Third, for the English community, phatic communication can be applied to make interaction easily and to build rapport. Fourth, for readers, the present researcher hopes that understanding phatic communication and realizing the importance of phatic communication are really needed. Fifth, for other researchers, this present study can be a reference and a comparison study for those who are interested in conducting research on phatic communication. Last, for the present researcher, it can be used as reflection whether the present researcher has applied phatic communication either in informal or formal situation.

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9 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides three parts of discussion, namely literature review, related studies, and theoretical framework. The first part serves the related theories of this present study. Meanwhile, the second part presents the relevant studies related to the topic discussion. The third part focuses on how the theories answer the research questions of the study.

A. Review of Related Theories

This part consists of three points related to the topic of this study. They are communication, the concept of phatic communion as phatic communication, phatic functions,and women and men’s conversational styles. The followings are the discussion of each point.

1. Communication

Language is used as a means of communication in which people exchange feelings or thoughts. Burton, Déchaine, and Vatikiotis-Bateson (2012:21) argue that using language to communicate is called as expression of language. It is considered that human language has design features reflecting its function as a vehicle for communication.

Burton et al. (2012:21) mention four ingredients needed in a communication, namely users, a message, a code, and a signal. It can be simply described that users transmit messages by encoding the messages into a signal. Those four ingredients have several design features of human language as listed in table 2.1.

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Table 2.1 Design Features of Human Language

Ingredient Design Feature

Users Specialized

Interchangeable Sensitive to feedback Interactive

Message Meaningful

Productive

Displaced from the here and now

Code Discrete

Arbitrary Hierarchical Signal Modality-specific

One-to-many broadcast Directional reception Rapid fading

Source: Burton et al. (2012:22)

The first ingredient is as users (a sender and a receiver) with four design features, namely specialized, interchangeable, sensitive to feedback, and interactive. Being specialized means that users use speech specialized for communication, like the lungs and the vocal tract. Being interchangeable means that users are able to send and receive messages. Being sensitive to feedback means that users monitor and adjust their production as needed. Being interactive means that users learn the use of language by interacting with other users.

The second ingredient is a message that needs to be meaningful, productive, and displaced from the here and now. Having meaningful message can specify meaning of the language use as the design feature of semanticity. Being productive means creating new messages since the human ability has to do with the ability to generate new descriptions and give new information. Therefore, this ability deals with the design feature of productivity. Being displaced from the here

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and now, as the design feature of displacement, means talking about things located elsewhere in time and space.

The third ingredient is a code that can change the form of a message. This code has three design features, namely discrete, arbitrary, and hierarchical. Discrete code refers to messages consisting of smaller parts (words, syllables, or individual sounds). Arbitrary means no intrinsic connection needed between the signal and the meaning it conveys. Hierarchical refers to a combination of small units to become larger units (sounds, syllables, words, phrases, sentences, discourse).

The fourth ingredient is a signal that is needed to transmit a physical signal, like sound, sight, or touch. The signal has four design features: modality-specific, one-to-many broadcast, directional reception, and rapid fading. Modality-specific shows that spoken language uses the airways to produce acoustic and visual signals supported by hand gestures and facial gestures. One-to-many broadcast shows that a sender might broadcast speech signals to many receivers at the same time, like giving a speech or broadcasting. Directional reception shows that perceivers identify speech signals as coming from a single direction and source. Rapid fading shows that speech signals disappear as soon as the signals are produced.

The explanation above shows that those four ingredients and design features of human language need to be considered in a communication. It is assumed that those can make communication work well. Therefore, in communication, people need to focus on senders (speakers) and receivers (listeners), formulate the messages, design an efficient language code, and work with the signals.

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Cruse (2000:5) describes the notion of communication as an exploration of meaning. It indicates that communication constructs any meanings or interpretations when transforming information. To get the meaning as wanted, Cruse (2000:5) in line with Lyons (1997:34) gives a simple model of communication shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Model of Communication (Cruse, 2000:5)

Figure 2.1 shows the way of communication people do in their daily life. It describes that senders (speakers) have something to say in mind that is called as a message shown in the first brackets. The message is converted into a transmitted form, namely a signal. Encoding process is involved to translate the message into a linguistic form and then translate the linguistic form into a set of instructions to the speech organs resulting in an acoustic signal. The initial form of this signal is named transmitted signal.

The channel of communication shows that the signal travels from senders to receivers. However, the signal might change in various ways, like distortion, interference from irrelevant stimuli or loss through fading. The changes are called as noise. Therefore, the received signal caught by receivers might not be the same as the transmitted signal given by senders. On the other hand, if the signal is

channel

{message} (encoding) (decoding) {message}

sender receiver

noise transmitted

signal

received signal

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received without any noise, it can be decoded to carry the original message. Therefore, receivers can get the message shown in the last brackets as senders want. Above all, the figure shows that people need to give attention to messages in order to make a successful communication.

In addition, Lyons (1997:34) has two points having to do with the notion of communication. The first point is the distinction between actual and intended receivers of a signal. It is stated that it is common to have more than one receiver linked to senders by a channel of communication and for the senders to be communicating with only one of these receivers. In this point, the senders give the signal identifying the intended receivers or addressees and invite them to pay attention to, or respond to the signal.

The second point relates to a successful communication that does not only depend upon receivers’ reception of the signal, but also upon his recognition of senders’ communicative intention and upon his making an appropriate behavioral or cognitive response to it. From those two points, it can be stated that giving signal to intended receivers is important in a communication because if senders give the signal to another receiver, the communication might not become as what the senders want. After the senders give the signal, the intended receivers also need to pay attention carefully and respond to the signal given by the senders. Giving an appropriate response to the signal is also needed to make the communication run well. Thus, those points can create a successful communication between the senders and the receivers.

A successful communication also depends on the person when communicating with others. In other words, the way people start or end the

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conversation, respond a message, give attention, take the turn, and listen carefully become important as well (Jumanto, 2011:24). In brief, people need to know how to make a successful communication with others, including with unknown people. 2. The Concept of Phatic Communion as Phatic Communication

Conversation happens many times in society, and people might not always employ utterances for sharing information. In this case, they might only show their willingness to talk in order to open or to keep open a channel of communication (Wardhaugh, 2006:285). The utterances that do not inform anything are called phatic.

The word phatic is from the word phatos, that is, the Greek word for spoken (Schneider and Barron, 2008:102). Therefore, it can be stated that phatic is as verbal communication. This kind of communication can be called phatic communion or phatic communication. Actually, both of the terms have the same purpose, that is, to build good rapport.

Phatic communion is as casual conversation applied in society. Malinowski (1923) has studied and introduced the concept of phatic communion. At first, Malinowski (1923:298) has analyzed the problem of primitive languages from Papuo-Melanesia. He explains that a group of primitive people works together and does certain activities based on specific rules created by their culture and tradition. In this case, verbal communication is the best way to interact with each other (Malinowski, 1923:305).

On the other hand, Malinowski has another opinion about language. He argues that the language used by certain group might not give any specific purpose. He observes the activities of the primitive people; hunting, fishing, tilling

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the soil, and others. They have a chat with each other talking something. The topics are not related to what they are doing at that time. In this case, “speech is the necessary means of communion” (Malinowski, 1923:310). They use language for other purposes, that is, maintaining social bonds and showing politeness (Malinowski, 1923:316).

From his observation, Malinowski (1923) has coined the term phatic communion. It describes as“a type of speech in which ties of unionare created by a mere exchange of words” (Malinowski, 1923:315). Even, he argues that language of phatic communion is used in free, aimless, social interaction (Malinowski, 1923:313). It means that the language might be used in any situation without any specific purpose aiming to interact with other people.

Malinowski has realized that phatic talk is a form of action in order to establish personal bonds between people by the mere need of companionship (Malinowski, 1923:326). In other words, phatic communion is a kind of action in which people can build or maintain relationship. In addition, Coupland (2000:2) emphasizes that phatic communion does not have any purpose, but it is useful for defusing the threat of taciturnity in conversation. This refers to space-filling talk in which phatic talk is to break the emptiness in communication.

The term phatic communion has popularly become phatic communication. The development of the term phatic communion refers to one of Jakobson’s language functions, that is, phatic. The function of language emphasizes a contact between speakers and listeners (Innis, 1985:146). The term contact becomes the point of phatic communication.

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Other linguists, Richards and Schmidt (2010:432) also refer to the term social contact in the definition of phatic communion. It is described as “a term used by the British-Polish anthropologist Malinowski to refer to communication between people which is not intended to seek or convey information but has the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact” (Richards and Schmidt, 2010:432). They also use the same term, contact, showing that phatic communion is sort of communication. Therefore, based on phatic communion definition above, then phatic communion can be called as phatic communication. In this case, phatic communication shows “a verbal communication between speakers and hearers to maintain the social relationship between them, not to give an emphasis on information content of the communication” (Jumanto, 2014:10).

The concept of phatic communication is actually the same as phatic communion. Both of them aim to create good social relationship. In the above explanation, Malinowski (1923:315) has underlined that phatic communion is a type of speech tying unions without any specific purpose. Besides, phatic communication is to express “an affective or social message rather than a referential one” (Holmes, 1992: 287).Hence, it is clear that both terms are similar because they have the same purpose, that is, building social rapport. In addition, giving any information might not become typical of phatic communication. In short, phatic communication does indeed aim to create free conversation without any information.

3. Phatic Functions

Phatic communication covers a number of functions accounted by several linguists taking into account of it. The linguists are Malinowski, Jakobson,Bϋhler,

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Leech, Cook, Holmes, Kridalaksana, Renkema, Schiffrin, Abercrombie, Verschueren, Coupland, Saville-Troike, Mey, O’Sullivan, Hartley, Saunders, Montgomery, Fiske, Richard, Platt, and Platt. They have contributed their ideas about phatic.

The idea of each linguist, then, is turned out twelve functions of phatic communication. Referring to Kridalaksana (2004), Jumanto (2014:9) proposes theoretical framework of phatic communication exploring the specific functions of phatic communication. In this point, he adds phatic function, that is, politeness. He argues that the idea of Malinowski (1923), (Leech (1983), and O’Sullivan et al. (1994) is stated that people need to utter words politely and therefore politeness function might also be important. The theoretical framework is outlined as follows.

Phatic communion Three language functionsBϋhler (1934): Malinowski (1923) Expressive, Appellative, Representative

6 functions of language Jakobson (1960):

Emotive, Conative, Referential, Phatic, Multilingual, Poetic

Phatic Communication

Richard et al. (1985); Leech (1983), Cook (1989), Holmes (1992), Kridalaksana (1994, 2004),O’Sullivanet al. (1994), Renkema (1994),

Schiffrin (1994), Abercrombie (1998), Verschueren (1999), Coupland (2000), Saville-Troike (2003), Mey (2001)

12 functions of phatic communication

(1) avoiding the silence, breaking the silence, or saying something obligatory, (2) starting a conversation or opening a contact,

(3) giving chit-chat or a relatively unfocused conversation, (4) making gossip, (5) keeping talking, (6) expressing solidarity, (7) creating harmony, (8) creating comfort, (9) expressing empathy,

(10) expressing friendship or camaraderie,

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Figure 2.2 Theoretical Framework of Phatic Communication (Jumanto, 2014:9)

Figure 2.2 gives details about the functions of language and phatic talk, and the experts who concern with language in use. As explained, Malinowski has proposed phatic communion. He believes that phatic communion is not used to exchange ideas, but it aims for creating social bonds in a society (Malinowski, 1923:316).

Bϋhler (1934:460-461) mentions three functions of language: expressive, appellative, and representative. Expressive function shows that language is as a tendency used to express feelings. Appellative function shows a signal leading to a feeling and a behavior of a speaker. Representative function shows that language is a sign used to talk about an object and a situation.

In addition, Jakobson (1960:357) gives six functions of language, namely emotive, conative, referential, phatic, metalingual, and poetic. Emotive function emphasizes on addressers (senders or speakers) and it describes an expression of speakers’ behavior towards the topic discussed. Conative function deals with addressees (receivers or listeners). Referential function refers to context. Phatic function emphasizes on contact between addressers and addressees. Metalingual function focuses on code used by addresser and addressee. Poetic function emphasizes on a delivered message.

Figure 2.2 shows that phatic is the focus of several linguists and it has a number of functions. In this point, Jumanto (2014:9) draws conclusions on phatic functions in which each function serves various communicative functions of phatic communication. The functions of phatic communication are avoiding the

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silence, starting a conversation or opening a contact, making chit-chat, making gossip, keeping talking, expressing solidarity, creating harmony, creating comfort, expressing empathy, expressing friendship, expressing respect, and expressing politeness.

Besides, the functions of phatic communication have several communicative functions. The communicative functions of phatic communication are greeting, parting, mentioning names or titles, commenting on something obvious, interrupting, apologizing to open conversation, avoiding silence when talking, changing topic of conversation, expressing listening noises, agreeing on something, apologizing, expressing wishes, congratulating, thanking, giving compliments, criticizing indirectly, saying bad words, mocking, joking, pacifying, encouraging, and sympathizing (Jumanto, 2014:11-13). The functions and communicative functions of phatic communication are as follows.

a. Avoiding the Silence, Breaking the Silence, or Saying Something Obligatory

This function happens when the situation is starting to be silent in conversation. Malinowski (1923:314) explains that avoiding silence is the main goal engaging in phatic talk. Moreover, avoiding silence is also used to prevent awkward or uncomfortable moment and communication breakdowns (Coupland, 2000:111).

It is explained that being silent is impolite since it can be considered as haughty (Fine, 2005:18). Therefore, people need to use any expressions or gestures to break the silence. The communicative functions in avoiding silence are

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greeting, parting, mentioning names or titles, and commenting on something obvious.

b. Starting a Conversation or Opening a Contact

Starting a conversation is quite easy for some people. In this case, Fine (2005:29) argues that starting a conversation is exactly not quite hard since people only need to choose a partner to talk. Giving smile and saying a few words can also become a way to start a conversation.

People can open a contact in simple ways. They can apply several communicative functions in interaction. They are greeting, parting, mentioning names or titles, commenting on something obvious, interrupting, and apologizing to open conversation.

c. Making Chit-Chat or a Relatively Unfocused Conversation

This function is to create conversation freely. Coupland (2000:1) states that chit-chat or small talk includes gossiping, chatting, and having time-out talk. It is space-filling talk as a basic communication requirement (Coupland, 2000:2). In addition, conversation has many topics to discuss and becomes unfocused conversation. Verschueren (1998:23) argues that phatic communion is precisely to sustain a relatively unfocused conversation.

To make chit-chat or unfocused conversation, three stages are needed to be considered. Those stages are opening, middle or content, and closing (Schneider and Barron, 2008:102). First, opening stage is to start making chit-chat or greet someone. Second, middle stage includes topics or contents of chit-chat containing uncontroversial topics (Schneider and Baron, 2008:99), such as family, holiday,

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weekend, TV program, job, school, weather, and other topics. Last, closing stage is to end chit-chit.

d. Making Gossip

Gossiping is talking about one’s life in informal contexts and is supposed to be women’s world.In this point, Holmes (1992:331) describes gossip as a casual conversation between people in informal contexts. He also argues that groups of women makegossip to talk about someone or one’s private life. The third person, of course, does not take part in conversation. He also states that gossip is called as “idle talk” in Western society and it becomes women characteristic in interaction.

Gossiping also has the same stages as making chit-chat. Bergmann (1993), quoted in Tracy, Ilie, and Sandel (2015:700), mentions the three stages, namely opening, middle or content, and closing. First, opening stage is to start gossiping. Second, middle stage includes gossip contents discussing about physical characteristics, personal characteristics, behavior, sexuality, or peer associations (McDonald, Putallaz, Grimes, Kupersmidt, and Coie, 2007:390). Last, closing stage is to end gossiping or to change the topic.

e. Keeping Talking

This function is to make situation alive by responding to what speakers say. Leech (1983:141) states that phatic communication is to keep talking in order to avoid silence. Using question, tag question, or minimal response can be used to keep the conversation going (Kollock, Blumstein, and Schwartz, 1985:35).

Phatic communication is to sustain conversation (Kridalaksana, 1994:114). Several communicative functions are also needed to show the way to keep talking.

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They are interrupting, avoiding the silence when talking, changing the topic of conversation, and expressing listening noises.

f. Expressing Solidarity

Solidarity happens when people support others’ feeling or thought. It can also refer to the use of dialects in conversation. In this case, Holmes (1992:377) states that solidarity refers to how well people know each other since it can affect the way people talk. He also describes that the choice of dialects indicates the degree of solidarity between speakers and listeners.

Moreover, people use vernacular language because they share attitudes and values, and belong to the same ethnic (Holmes, 1992:377). Standard forms reflect social distance between speakers and listeners, while certain speech styles show the intimacy. In expressing solidarity, several communicative functions are needed to support the performance. The communicative functions of expressing solidarity are expressing wishes, congratulating, agreeing on something, apologizing, thanking, giving compliments, criticizing indirectly, saying bad words, mocking, and joking.

g. Creating Harmony

This function is to create comfortable feeling and harmony between speakers and listeners in conversation. Creating social harmony refers to “a healthy relationship among people in society” (Cheung and Ma, 2011:145). Moreover, Kridalaksana (1994:114) assumes that phatic communication is to establish communication in order to create harmony.

Creating harmony is also needed to make pleasant situation in conversation. In this case, people can produce various communicative functions in conversation.

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The communicative functions are expressing wishes, congratulating, agreeing on something, apologizing, thanking, giving compliments, criticizing indirectly, saying bad words, and joking.

h. Creating Comfort

This function aims to make others comfort when they share anything. Either speakers or listeners can create it in the interaction. Moreover, Fine (2005:21) emphasizes that people involved in conversation need to make others feel comfortable.

Several communicative functions might be helpful in creating comfort. Those communicative functions are expressing wishes, congratulating, agreeing on something, apologizing, thanking, giving compliments, criticizing indirectly, saying bad words, joking, pacifying, and encouraging. Therefore, by applying such communicative functions, people can make others feel a comfortable situation in conversation.

i. Expressing Empathy

This function is to make people understand one’s feelings. Empathy aims to demonstrate attentiveness by feeling what others are feeling (Fukushima and Haugh, 2014:2). In other words, sharing feelings can make people know and imagine the situation of one’s feelings.

To achieve this function, people need to be good listeners. They can also produce several communicative functions. Those are expressing wishes, congratulating, agreeing on something, apologizing, thanking, giving compliments, criticizing indirectly, saying bad words, joking, pacifying, encouraging, and sympathizing.

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j. Expressing Friendship or Camaraderie

This function aims to encourage other people, give arguments, and share common interests and experiences. Gabor and Power (2011:124) explain that “friends can be allies, supporters, or sympathizers who give encouragement, feedback, honest opinions, and usually a lot advice”. Therefore, this function can make people start or maintain their friendship.

In addition, this function serves a feeling of friendly relationship to acquaintances or friends. People can apply several communicative functions in conversation. Those are expressing wishes, congratulating, agreeing on something, apologizing, thanking, giving compliments, criticizing indirectly, saying bad words, mocking, joking, pacifying, encouraging, and sympathizing. k. Expressing Respect or Deference

Expressing respect or deference aims to respect each other in conversation. In this sense, Scollon and Scollon (2001:54) emphasize that people might treat each other differently. Moreover, Scollon and Scollon (2001:54) also argue that expressing respect is for people who do not know each other well.

However, phatic communication is generally to express respect a person with a higher status (Schriffin, 1994). All in all, it can be stated that one can express respect to a higher status or unknown people. In this regard, this function deals with several communicative functions of phatic communication. They are expressing wishes, congratulating, agreeing on something, apologizing, thanking, giving compliments, criticizing indirectly, joking, pacifying, encouraging, and sympathizing.

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l. Expressing Politeness

This function aims to show polite manners in conversation. Politeness shows a matter of selecting linguistic forms using appropriate communicative functions to show status differences (Holmes, 1992:285). Malinowski (1923:316) states that words of phatic communion are phrases of politeness considered as a polite talk. It can be understood that most of the communicative functions are to show one’s politeness in conversation.

Phatic communication that shows politeness are avoiding the silence, starting a conversation or opening a contact, making chit-chat, keeping talking, expressing solidarity, creating harmony, creating comfort, expressing empathy, expressing friendship, and expressing respect Jumanto (2014:9). The communicative functions of politeness are all that have been mentioned previously, except making gossip. It seems impolite to interfere or to gossip one’s private lives. Actually, gossiping might become something usual for people having close relationship. Even gossiping is not polite talk, it is still considered as phatic talk because the function is to establish intimacy in communication (Tannen, 1990:96).

4. Women and Men’s Conversational Styles

Conversation created by male or female might show different styles. Tannen (1986:125) states that it is because of cross-cultural interaction. It is explained that culture is a kind of habits and patterns from the past. In addition, different gender is socialized into different culture (Holmes, 1995:7). Therefore, it clearly shows that cultural differences can make women and men interact differently.

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Other differences can be the variations in regional speech or matters of usage (Frank and Anshen, 1983:25). The variations in regional speech show the different sound when speaking. Women have high-pitched voices, speak rapidly, and sound emotional. Men have deep and resonant voices, and speak slowly. Matters of usage show politeness and grammatical form in conversation. It shows that women’s speech is likely more polite and more grammatical than men’s speech.

Other styles can also be found in women and men’s conversation. Those styles can be in a form of topic, swear word or taboo language, gossip, interruption, and back-channel response. The description of each style can be seen in the following details.

a. Topic

This style shows that people create conversation by choosing any topic. Frank and Anshen (1983:31) states that conversation is talking about something and needs topic(s) to discuss. In this sense, topic deals with “the subject matter of conversation, to what the conversationis about” (Haas, 1979:619).

In conversation, people might select a certain topic to introduce, develop, or change the topic (Richards, 1980:423). Men and women might also have differences in selecting topic. Coates (2004:128) explains that women and men certainly discuss different topics. Women’s topic is about people and feeling, while men’s topics are current issues, travel, and sport.

The topics created might not always be successful to be discussed in conversation. Fishman’s research (1983), quoted in Frank and Anshen (1983:31), shows the failure of the topics found in conversation. She finds that women have

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many topics, but several topics failed. On the other hand, men’s topics are successful, although some are the same as women’s topics that have failed.

Topic failure is actually caused by the failure to respond. To react to such situation, using questions becomes one of the strategies. Question forms need a response from the other person in conversation, so the topics can last longer (Frank and Anshen, 1983:31).

b. Swear Word or Taboo Language

Swearing or expressing taboo language shows rude words and impoliteness. Trudgill (1977:29) considers swear word or taboo language as improper behavior. This relates to the unsaid things and unused words or expressions, such as Fuck!, Damn it!, and others.

Most men express swear words showing their anger. It is emphasized that “the folklinguistic belief that men swear more than women and use more taboo words is widespread”(Coates, 2004:97) Moreover, Trudgill (1977:90) states that using taboo words and swear words is acceptable for men. On the other hand, women have an “instinctive shrinking from coarse and gross expressions and a preference for refined and (in certain sphere) veiled and indirect expressions” (Jespersen, 1922:246). It can be understood that women’s characteristic is polite and differs from men’s.

One of the examples is the use of dear and shit in a conversation. Lakoff and Bucholtz (2004:44) give details that the expression Oh dear, you’ve put the

peanut butter in the refrigerator again is as women’s language and polite expressions. Meanwhile, Shit, you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator

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again shows men’s language. It can be noticed by the expression of swear word shit.

Actually, the difference of using oh dear and shit is only a matter of the choice of particle. It shows “how strongly one allows oneself to feel about something.” (Lakoff and Bucholtz, 2004:44). It can be assumed that the strength of emotions lies in the strength of the particle.

c. Gossip

Gossiping is talking about one’s private lives, but it can show a way to express solidarity between speakers and listeners. It shows that “gossip conveys information about people, events, or attitudes as well as serving the cohesive social function of emphasizing membership of the in-group and reinforcing solidarity between contributors”(Holmes, 1995:4). It is also explained that gossip is to “affirm solidarity and maintain the social relationship” (Holmes, 1992:331).

As stated in the previous section, McDonald, Putallaz, Grimes, Kupersmidt, and Coie (2007:390) explore the topics of gossip. Those are physical characteristics, personal characteristics, behavior, sexuality, or peer associations. In this case, physical characteristics include appearance, clothes, or hygiene. Personal characteristics refer to individual traits, like intelligence, ethnicity, religion, or family. Then, behavior represents actions or behavior, including social skills, abilities, specific actions, and morals. Sexuality refers to sexual interests or sexual behavior. The last topic shows group associations, or group membership.

Women and men might have different topics to gossip. It is stated that gossip is “women’s interest in talking about one’s lives” (Tannen, 1990:96). Moreover,it is explained that women like to talk about “trivial topics and gibberish” (Aries,

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1996:164). In addition, it shows that “women’s gossip focuses on personal experiences and personal relationships, on personal problems and feelings” (Holmes, 1992:331). The topics might include criticism of the behavior, but women tend to avoid criticizing people directly because it can make discomfort feeling. Meanwhile, men are likely to talk about things and activities, rather than personal experiences and feelings. It is more on information and facts rather than on feelings and reactions.

d. Interruption

Interrupting is stopping people’s talk for a short time. It is assumed that “interrupting is a violation of an individual’s right to speak and is therefore often the privilege of the more powerful, while being interrupted is the fate of the less powerful” (Frank and Anshen, 1983:30). It means that interrupting is stopping a speaker’s turn aiming to dominate the talk in conversation. If listeners interrupt speakers’ speech, it shows that the topic might not be interesting at all (Holmes, 1995:51). Therefore, listeners might not care and listen about what speakers say (Tannen, 1990:189).

In this case, men and women might have different stereotype. Frank and Anshen (1983:30) describe that women do interrupt more than men do. However, supported by other researchers, “men interrupt women more often than the reverse” (Holmes, 1995:51). By interrupting, men try to get more attention from women, and vice versa. Moreover, it is also described that “interruption in same sex is equally used between speakers, while men interrupt more than do women in cross-sex interaction”(Holmes, 1992:325).

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semester I want to take education stream. So… ==

26 Al == (46) Hmhm == (47) Hmhm == (48) Hmhm == (49) Oh! == (50) Oh! So…==

(46) (47) (48) (49) (50) expressing listening noises

(46) (47) (48) (49) (50) keeping talking

27 Esti ==(51) Yes. (51) avoiding the silence

when talking

(51) keeping talking 28 Al (52) Eh, you say that you are a–work as English teacher ( ).

(52) avoiding the silence when talking

(52) keeping talking

29 Esti == Yes. -

-30 Al (53) Is it elementary, or primary, or junior high school or– == or senior? ==

(53) avoiding the silence when talking

(53) keeping talking (53) making chit-chat (content)

31 Esti == (54) Hmm. == (55) Hmm. (56) Okay. Here I am an English teacher of…elementary school == in Jetis. So, not so far from Tugu. == Yogyakarta. == So…and I teach from grade 1 till grade 6, and I…(57) yes…that’s pretty funny since I teach many kinds of kids. == (58) Yes, so funny. By having so fun with them, (59) yes…and singing, playing games with them. That’s so fun. == (60) So, what about you?

(54) (55) (56) (57) (58) (59) expressing listening noises (60) avoiding the silence when taking

(54) (55) (56) (57) (58) (59) (60) keeping talking

32 Al == (61) Hmhm == (62) Hmhm == (63) Hmhm. I see. == (64) Hmhm == (65) Oh! == (66) Ehm…yeah…(67) I…==

(61) (62) (63) (64) (65) (66) expressing listening noises (67) avoiding the silence when talking

(61) (62) (63) (64) (65) (66) (67) keeping talking

33 Esti == (68) Your undergraduate program == (69) You and everything ==

(68) (69) avoiding the silence when talking

(68) (69) keeping talking

34 Al (70) Yeah. I == (71) Uhm...I – I…graduate from English education department also == But not in Sanata Dharma == In Yogyakarta State University.

(70) (71) avoiding the silence when talking

(70) (71) keeping talking

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35 Esti == (72) Yes. == (73) Oh! == (74) Oh! Yes. == (72) (73) (74) expressing listening noises

(72) (73) (74) keeping talking

36 Al == And then I think my passion is about English and education. If I’m tell now, I’m – I’m working in…(75) ehm…my university as a teacher, but for Indonesian == Indonesian for foreigners. So, but…(76) ehm…I still – still have paid that passion to teach…(77) ehm…to be a teacher or a lecturer in English. So, I take this semester…(78) eh…this program, and I know that…(79) ehm…English program – English education program in Sanata Dharma is quite good. == And then as we know…(80) ehm…the –the– the–the grade is quite high. And then I just heard that some of the teachers here teach really well. == So, (81) Yeah!I…I join this program. And then, now I…what…about my – my– my job is that one and I…(82) yeah…I hope I can make my English better and then I can help – I help – I really can understand what is English actually == And then the meaning–the essential meaning of English ==

(75) (76) (77) (78) (79) (80) (81) (82) avoiding the silence when talking

75) (76) (77) (78) (79) (80) (81) (82) keeping talking

37 Esti == (83) Ehm == (84) Hmm == (85) Hmm == (86) Hmm == (87) So, what’s your study program in the undergraduate program?

(83) (84) (85) (86) expressing listening noises (87) avoiding the silence when talking

(83) (84) (85) (86) (87) keeping talking (87) making chit-chat (content)

38 Al (88) Ehm…I... (89) Yeah!...I take English education department. == English department, too. So, here I take English language studies, but I want to get the concentration to take == for education. Because, (90) Yeah. I want to have – I want to have some experience or some knowledge deeply == So, in the first semester I take all the…like linguistics,

(88) (89) (90) (91) (92) (93) avoiding the silence when talking

(88) (89) (90) (91) (92) (93) keeping talking

(3)

and then literature, and then education. But, in the second semester, I take education == As my concentration. So, I want to FOCUS on education. I want to LEARN == Really how to be a real lecturer. (91) Yeah! Even I don’t have like…time to get the experience like you, because you – you have the – you have the – the knowledge, and you have the time to express what is the knowledge and you have time to practice the theory. (Then), for me, it’s quite difficult but it’s okay, maybe I have –I will try to (92) ehm…contact some of lecturer. And then we can discuss together about what is (this one and this one) (93) yeah…to get the discussion I really hope I can add–I can practice what is the ( ).

39 Esti == (94) Hmm. English department, too. == (95) Education == (96) Hmhm == (97) Education == (98) Hmm == (99) Hmm == (100) By the way, where do you work right now?

(94) (95) (96) (97) (98) (99) expressing listening noises (100) avoiding the silence when talking

(94) (95) (96) (97) (98) (99) keeping talking (100) making chit-chat (content)

40 Al (101) Yeah. I work in International office. == (101) avoiding the silence when talking

(101) keeping talking 41 Esti == (102) Oh! International? (103) Great! == (102) expressing listening

noises (103) giving compliments

(102) keeping talking (103) expressing respect

42 Al == And then[noise] on the International office, I–I work as the coordinator of BIPA. That’s…==

-43 Esti == (104) Oh! BIPA. (104) expressing listening

noises

(104) keeping talking 44 Al BIPA. That’s ==(105) Yeah!That’s Indonesian Program for

Foreigners. So, if you say that I ( ) (106) yeah. My expertise is in Indonesian, how to teach Indonesian for foreigners.

(105) (106) (107) avoiding the silence when talking

(105) (106) (107) keeping talking

(4)

And…but for how to teach English for Indonesian is…(107) yeah…I never have. That’s ( ) I –I expect that my–my–my job now can help me to improve my English. ==

45 Esti == (108) That’s great! == (109) So, what about the learning teaching activities going on in BIPA class?

(108) giving compliments (109) avoiding the silence when talking

(108) expressing respect (109) keeping talking (109) making chit-chat (content)

46 Al (110) Yeah! == (110) avoiding the silence

when talking

(110) keeping talking 47 Esti == (111) Can you tell a little bit for me? (111) avoiding the silence

when talking

(111) keeping talking

48 Al That’s – that’s – that’s quite great. -

-49 Esti (112) Yes. (112) expressing listening

noises

(112) keeping talking 50 Al (113) Yeah. Because we find–we see many people, and then

they come from different countries, and ( ) And every countries has its own…(114) ehm…has its own characteristics. So, I learn many…many characteristic, like from South East Asian. They will have high dignity == And then theydon’t want to high – they have high ego. And then, (115) ehm…we just – we have to – we have to unders – unders – understand them, and then we cannot underes – underestimate to them. And then, that’s different from… == From Asian. China, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia. They have the same culture, as ( ) like Indonesia. So, we have the problem with that.…I still…sometimes it’s not accept – acceptable for me, and like you, or American people, they just express what they felt. == Because we don’t – we don’t

(113) (114) (115) (116) (117) (118) avoiding the silence when talking

(113) (114) (115) (116) (117) (118) keeping talking

(5)

do that. == We don’t express what we felt. It is wrong so… [noise] actually it – it is wrong, so (116) ehm…it is (117) ehm…so we – we just– we just –(118) okay… we just get it in all my daily ( ). == That’s…something… ==

51 Esti == (119) Oh! == (120) Hmm == (121) Hmm == (122) Hmm == (123) Wow! == (124) That would be great!

(119) (120) (121) (122) (123) expressing listening noises (124) giving compliments

(119) (120) (121) (122) (123) keeping talking (124) expressing respect

52 Al (125) Yeah!That’s great experience! and that’s great! (126) Yeah! Express a new knowledge how to under – understand many people.

(125) (126) avoiding the silence when talking

(125) (126) keeping talking

53 Esti (126) Okay, (127) Al. (128) Good luck for your study == and for your ( ).

(126) avoiding the silence when talking (127) mentioning names (128) expressing wishes

(126) (127) keeping talking (128) creating comfort

54 Al == (129) And good luck for your studies. (129) expressing wishes (129) creating comfort 55 Esti (130) By the way,it’s 3 pm already. == (131) So, we have to

–== We have to be in the class.

(130) (131) avoiding the silence when talking

(130) (131) keeping talking (131) making chit-chat (closing) 56 Al == (132) Ah! == (133) We have to (move) == (134) Okay. (132) expressing listening

noises (133) avoiding the silence when talking (134) agreeing on something

(132) (133) keeping talking (134) creating

harmony (133)

making chit-chat (closing)

57 Esti (135) So, see you in class. (135) parting (135) making chit-chat

(closing)

58 Al (136)See you and let’s (move). (136) parting (136) making chit-chat

(6)

59 Esti (137) Thank you. (137) thanking (137) creating harmony

60 Esti (138) Thank you. (138) thanking (138) creating

harmony *) bold utterances are phatic expressions and functions

English phatic communication of graduate students in English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University.

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