Male domination the footbinding and secret writing of nineteenth-century Chinese woman as seen in Lisa see`s Snow Flower and The Secret Fan.

 

MALE DOMINATION IN THE FOOTBINDING AND SECRET WRITING OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE WOMEN AS SEEN

IN LISA SEE’S SNOW FLOWER AND THE SECRET FAN

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Agatha Piscesia Paskalin Student Number: 071214040

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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MALE DOMINATION IN THE FOOTBINDING AND SECRET WRITING OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE WOMEN AS SEEN

IN LISA SEE’S SNOW FLOWER AND THE SECRET FAN

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Agatha Piscesia Paskalin Student Number: 071214040

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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This thesis is dedicated to:

Jesus Christ

Mother Mary

My Beloved Dad

My Wonderful Mom

My Sisters: Ima, Ela, Dita

And My Alma Mater

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Life is an opportunity, benefit from it

Life is beauty, admire it

Life is bliss, taste it

Life is a dream, realize it

Life is a challenge, meet it

Life is a duty, complete it

Life is a game, play it

Life is a promise, fulfill it

Life is sorrow, overcome it

Life is a song, sing it

Life is a struggle, accept it

Life is a tragedy, confront it

Life is an adventure, dare it

Life is luck, make it

Life is too precious, do not destroy it

Life is life, fight for it

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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, 22 August 2011 The Writer

Agatha Piscesia Paskalin 071214040

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswi Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Agatha Piscesia Paskalin

Nomor Mahasiswa : 07 1214 040

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

MALE DOMINATION IN THE FOOTBINDING AND SECRET WRITING OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE WOMEN

AS SEEN IN LISA SEE’S SNOW FLOWER AND THE SECRET FAN

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin ataupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Dengan pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta, Pada tanggal: 27 July 2011 Yang menyatakan,

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ABSTRACT

Paskalin, Agatha Piscesia. 2011. Male Domination in the Footbinding and Secret Writing of Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women as Seen in Lisa See’s

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is a historical fiction which tells about the lives of Chinese women in the nineteenth century which was still in the era of pre-modern China where women’s position was inferior to men’s position. During that period, Chinese women had been bearing lots of expectations from the society. There was a tradition which obliged them to bind their feet and forced them to endure the agony of footbinding. Besides, Chinese women were not allowed an education like that of men. This situation encouraged them to communicate with their friends and their natal families by using women’s secret writing or commonly called as nu shu. Therefore, the writer intends to discover male domination in the footbinding and nu shu of nineteenth-century Chinese women.

There are two problems formulated in this study. The first problem is how footbinding and nu shu are depicted in the novel. The second problem is how male domination relates to the practice of footbinding and nu shu.

Library research was conducted in this study. The primary source was taken from the novel Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, while the second source was derived from several books, articles found through the internet, and in encyclopedias which dealt with the topic discussed and supported the idea of the study. Furthermore, the approach applied in this study was sociological approach.

There were two results of the study. The first result showed that footbinding and nu shu were clearly depicted in the novel. Both had some social functions for Chinese women. The second results showed that male domination closely relates to the practice of footbinding and nu shu. Chinese women were the prisoners of tradition based on gender discrimination. This gender problem was the impact of Chinese society which used Confucian ideals as the guidance of their lives. The ideals demanded the women to obey their fathers, their husbands, and later their sons. Thus, Chinese women lived as the second-class citizens. Footbinding was an obligation for Chinese women because it could bring them to the life’s perfection. Footbinding dealt with being marriageable and the improvement of social status and the bright future as well. Furthermore, the bound feet became sexual fetish for men to achieve sexual pleasure. Then, the ideal that Chinese women were not allowed being outside the house caused them to be very far from having equal opportunities with men. Their right to education was not recognized. To escape from this situation, they wrote nu shu to communicate with their friends and their natal families and to express their feelings and creativities. Keywords: footbinding, nu shu, nineteenth-century Chinese women, male

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ABSTRAK

Paskalin, Agatha Piscesia. 2011. Male Domination in the Footbinding and Secret Writing of Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women as Seen in Lisa See’s

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan karya Lisa See merupakan novel fiksi sejarah yang menceritakan kehidupan perempuan Cina di abad kesembilan belas yang masih belum moderen dimana posisi perempuan lebih rendah dari pada laki-laki. Di masa itu, para perempuan Cina dituntut banyak harapan dari masyarakat. Adalah sebuah tradisi yang mengharuskan mereka mengikat kaki dan memaksa mereka untuk menahan sakit tak tertahankan karena pengikatan tersebut. Selain itu, mereka tidak diijinkan untuk mendapatkan pendidikan layaknya kaum laki-laki. Situasi ini mendorong mereka menulis dalam bahasa rahasia yang disebut nu shu untuk berkomunikasi dengan sahabat dan keluarga asal mereka. Oleh karena itu, penulis ingin mencari tahu tentang dominasi laki-laki dalam pengikatan kaki dan nu shu pada perempuan-perempuan Cina di abad kesembilan belas.

Ada dua rumusan masalah dalam studi ini. Rumusan masalah pertama adalah bagaimana pengikatan kaki dan nu shu digambarkan dalam novel. Rumusan masalah yang kedua ialah bagaimana hubungan dominasi laki-laki dengan praktik pengikatan kaki dan nu shu.

Studi ini menggunakan studi kepustakaan. Sumber utama diambil dari novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan sedangkan sumber-sumber sekunder berasal dari beberapa buku, ensiklopedia, dan artikel-artikel dari internet yang menunjang topik diskusi. Selain itu, pendekatan yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah pendekatan sosiologikal.

Hasil dari studi ini menunjukkan bahwa pengikatan kaki dan nu shu digambarkan dengan jelas di dalam novel. Keduanya memiliki beberapa fungsi sosial bagi para perempuan Cina. Lalu, dominasi laki-laki ada kaitannya dengan praktik pengikatan kaki dan nu shu. Para perempuan Cina terpenjara dalam tradisi yang berdasarkan pada diskriminasi gender ini. Masalah gender ini merupakan dampak dari penggunaan ajaran Confucian sebagai pedoman hidup. Ajaran ini menuntut para perempuan untuk mematuhi laki-laki: ayah, suami, dan nantinya anak laki-laki mereka. Maka dari itu, para perempuan Cina hidup sebagai rakyat kelas kedua. Pengikatan kaki adalah sebuah keharusan bagi mereka supaya mereka mendapatkan kesempurnaan hidup. Dengan mengikat kaki mereka dapat menikah dan memperbaiki status sosial serta membawa mereka ke kehidupan yang lebih baik. Selain itu, kaki yang diikat menjadi kesenangan seksual bagi kaum laki-laki untuk mencapai kepuasan seksual. Kemudian, ajaran yang tidak memperbolehkan mereka ke luar rumah semakin menjauhkan mereka untuk mendapatkan kesempatan yang sama seperti laki-laki. Mereka tak punya hak akan pendidikan. Untuk keluar dari situasi ini, mereka menulis nu shu untuk berkomunikasi serta untuk mengekspresikan perasaan dan kreatifitas mereka. Kata kunci: pengikatan kaki, nu shu, perempuan Cina abad kesembilan belas,

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my deepest praise and gratitude to Jesus Christ and Mother Mary for their countless blessings. Thanks for giving me strength, health, and guidance so that I am able to finish my thesis.

Second, I would like to thank my advisor, Father L. Suharjanto, S.J., S.S., B.S.T., M.A. for willingly giving his time to read and correct my thesis. Without his guidance, advice, and criticism, I surely cannot finish this thesis on time. My sincere gratitude is also addressed to Sr. Rachel, FCJ who kindly helped me in checking my grammar. Furthermore, I would like to thank Ms. Adesti Komalasari, S.Pd., M.A. for her help, advice, and discussion.

Then, my greatest thanks go to all PBI’s lecturers for the guidance for me during these four years. I also thank to PBI’s secretariat: Mbak Daniek and Mbak Tari for facilitating me during my study in USD.

I would like to give special acknowledgement to my parents: Drs. Ignatius Sukasworo and Dra. Caecilia Sartini for their unending support, love, and pray; to my sisters: Melania Chrisma Widyawarantini, S.Pd., Marsela Lotjita Parahita, and Theresia Galuh Wandita for the wonderful sisterhood; and to my great uncles: Robertus Sukasnowo, Yohanes Saroyo, Titus Sarjono, and Laurentius Saptono for sincerely supporting and facilitating me. I love you all.

I am grateful to Yonathan Sostenes Grace Hadi who has gallantly encouraged me when I fretted and worried. I thank him for his love, humor, patience, and lots of support so I can keep moving forward. Thanks a lot.

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A bunch of thanks goes to my beloved friends: Wichan, Pipit, Rieta, Nana, Bertha, Pendi, Oda, Gobhe, Wiwid, Anti, Noti, Katrok, Deny, Celli, Trek, Nissa, Ayaz, and Dhuwai for their great supports for me during the completion of this thesis. I also thank to my Surya 6 family, especially Memey for sharing her book and thesis, C Linda, Mira, and my cousin Cintya.

My final thanks must go to my Stece friends: Itin, DiQta, Debo, Poezhy, and Chezy. Thanks for spending the precious time together. I will miss it.

May God bless them all.

Agatha Piscesia Paskalin  

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGES ... ii

DEDICATION PAGE ... iv

MOTTO PAGE ... v

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... vi

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK ... vii

ABSTRACT ... viii

ABSTRAK ... ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... x

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Problem Formulation ... 5

C. Objectives of the Study ... 5

D. Benefits of the Study ... 5

E. Definition of Terms ... 6

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 9

A. Review of Related Studies ... 9

B. Review of Related Theories ... 11

1. Male Concepts of Manhood ... 11

2. Concepts of Living in a Society ... 13

3. Sociological Description of Chinese Society in the Nineteenth Century ... 15

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5. Sociological Review of Chinese Women’s Secret

Writing (Nu Shu) ... 21

C. Theoretical Framework ... 23

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ... 24

A. Object of the Study ... 24

B. Approach of the Study ... 27

C. Method of the Study ... 29

CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS ... 30

A. The Depiction of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan ... 30

1. The Practice of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan ... 30

a. Footbinding in the Novel ... 31

b. Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel ... 36

2. The Development of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing ... 40

3. The Importance of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing om the Nineteenth Century ... 43

a. Beauty ... 44

b. Pride ... 45

c. Knowledge ... 47

d. Identity ... 48

B. Male Domination in Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing ... 50

1. The Male Idea of Beauty ... 51

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3. The Concept of Manhood ... 55

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS ... 57

A. Conclusions ... 57

B. Implications ... 60

C. Suggestions ... 63

REFERENCES ... 64

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LIST OF APPENDICES

A. Summary of Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan ... 68

B. Biography of Lisa See ... 71

C. Pictures of Footbinding ... 78

1. Sources of Footbinding Pictures ... 82

D. Pictures of Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu) ... 83

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides the background information for the study. It introduces and describes the nature and content of the proposed study. It consists of six parts: the background of the study that introduces the topic and the reason for choosing the topic, problem formulation that presents the questions to be answered in this study, problem limitation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms.

A. Background of the Study

In literary works such as fiction, poetry, and drama, the authors usually create awareness of a certain background to help them explain the situation they build. It can be the cultural, social, political and historical background. The background helps the readers to both understand the situation and be informed about particular issues and events.

In this study, the cultural background is highly significant. One of the cultures that is going to be emphasized or underlined is Chinese culture. Chinese culture is one of the famous cultures that is still very much alive. It is famous throughout the world since China is successful in preserving their old and great culture through Chinese descendants all over the world. The culture has been preserved until now thanks to China’s great and world-famous civilization. Gallin in his research China: People and Way of Life (1978) wrote that “China has the oldest continuous surviving civilization in the world although it is not the first to

   

have developed” (p. 496). Not only rich in culture, China’s ancient civilization also has outstanding achievements in the political, economic, demographic, and social spheres as well.

In Chinese culture, men are considered more powerful than women. Nanquin and Rawski (1987) in their book Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century state that the woman in China is inferior to man (p. 80). Since ancient times, Chinese women had been second-class citizens, very far from having equal opportunities with men. Their right to education was not recognized. They were prisoners of traditions based on gender discrimination.

For women, especially in the southern China, they had been bearing lots of expectation from the society. There was a tradition that obliged them to bind their feet as small as three inches. This footbinding brought and forced them to the suffering and the survival. In addition, there was the women’s secret writing or commonly called as nu shu that Chinese women used in order to communicate with their friends and the natal family after they were married. Nu shu is kept away from the men’s sightseeing so that the women wrote it to the fans or handkerchiefs. They use this secret writing because they were not allowed education at that time. Besides, the Chinese cultural idea kept isolating the women in the inner apartment as much as possible.

Chinese cultural idea is related to how Chinese people live in the society. Bloomfield (1991) in The Book of Chinese Belief insists that Chinese people traditionally have a very role-oriented society. Everybody has the role to play rightly. Children should obey their parents and respect their teacher; women

   

should obey their husband; and widows should obey their sons (p. xvi). This arrangement is a part of the Confucian filial piety demands that creates an orderly but restricted society.

Meanwhile, the demand of the women in the society is closely defined by Jackson in her book Splendid Slippers: A Thousand Years of an Erotic Tradition that Chinese society’s life was derived from Confucian dictum. Confucianism was prevalent at that time, or even till now. The girls who stray from these principles will not grow into virtuous women. Jackson (1997) mentioned the principles that Chinese girls must conform to.

Learned scholars, both Chinese and Western, basically have agreed that women’s rights were taken away from them by the Confucian dictum of “Thrice Following” from Book of Rites. In simple terms, Thrice Following stated that the woman must obey her father and elder brothers in her youth, her husband after marriage, and her son after the death of her husband. (p. 16)

However, from the quotation above, it can be seen that the Confucian ideals keep the women being considered inferior to men. This unequal gender between men and women in Chinese culture is overall picture of confinement and subjugation.

In this study, the writer is going to use one of Lisa See’s novels, that is Snow Flower and the Secret Fan as the subject of the study. It portrays Chinese women’s life in the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century. Then, the portrait of Chinese women’s footbinding and nu shu is depicted very closely.

Lisa See is the author of the bestselling books: Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, Shanghai Girls, Peony in Love, On Gold Mountain, The Interior, Dragon Bones, and the newest Dreams of Joy. All Lisa See’s literary works

   

portray Chinese women lives in the past. She is actually a Chinese-American woman who has a broad knowledge of China and also explores it as well. She grew up with Chinese tradition surrounding her. She lived closely with the old Chinese tradition. It became the reason why she was very interested in the Chinese background.

In Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, the major characters, Lily and Snow Flower are two girls who are living in the south China. In the place named Hunan County, footbinding still remains and become the obligation for their girls to bind their feet. It starts at the age of six or seven. Lily and Snow Flower obey it and successfully shape their feet into the small size. Since both of them are a pair of lao tong, which means friend forever, they keep communicating each other with the nu shu. Footbinding exists as a kind of rule for women to fit into man’s desire. Meanwhile, nu shu exists as a way that Chinese women do to keep interacting with their natal family and friends to share their happiness and sadness since they do not have someone to share with. It also has a relation to male domination in Chinese society at that time. Based on this condition, the topic was chosen to see the male domination in the footbinding and women’s secret writing of nineteenth-century Chinese women as depicted by the author in the novel.

Discussing Chinese tradition is very interesting. By exploring and observing through the novel, the reader will get a view of life of women at that time. Seeing from the sociological point of view becomes a challenge as well. In this study, the writer will deeply analyze how the social circumstance influenced Chinese women in the nineteenth century.

   

B. Problem Formulation

This study addresses two problems which are formulated as follows. 1. How are Chinese women’s footbinding and secret writing depicted in Lisa

See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan?

2. How does male domination relate to Chinese women’s footbinding and secret writing as revealed in Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan?

C. Objectives of the Study

This study has two objectives in accordance with the questions formulated in the Problem Formulation. The objectives are:

1. To see how women’s footbinding and secret writing are depicted in the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan.

2. To find out how male domination relates to women’s footbinding and secret writing revealed in the novel.

D. Benefits of the Study

This section identifies who will benefit from the study in accordance with the research objectives. The benefits of this study can be clarified as follows. Chinese women in the nineteenth century lived at the end of the period of male domination. The social factors affect how they behave and live at that time. This study gives benefits for the writer as a researcher to understand and provide more knowledge about the portrait of Chinese women in the nineteenth century by footbinding and their secret writing; and also the relation of male domination to

   

footbinding and the secret writing. This study also gives benefits to the future researchers who conduct studies on the sociological aspects which influenced Chinese women’s life in the nineteenth century. Besides, this study provides the open discussion about implications of the study to education.

E. Definitions of Terms

Below are the list of terms which are used throughout the study and their definitions.

1. Footbinding

Naquin and Rawski (1987) state that footbinding is the tight painful binding of the toes for Chinese girls and wrapping of the feet to keep them the small size deemed desirable for wives as small as three inches (p. 90). It is begun at the age of six or seven. Then, Fairbank (1986) in his book The Great Chinese Revolution 1800-1985 defined the bound feet as the erogenous area and the source of sexual fetish for men and become a guarantee of chastity for women (p. 70).

2. Women’s Secret Writing (Nu shu)

According to the book Origins of Chinese Language (2009), nu shu is women’s secret codes from Jiangyong County, Province Hunan, People’s Republic of China. The characters of nu shu are phonetic and every word has its spelling. Nu shu was developed a thousand years ago. It appears to be the only written language in the world to have been created by women exclusively for their own use. As it is secret for men, Chinese women keep this away from men.

   

3. Male Domination

Jackson (1997) states that male domination of women is a condition in which men create a situation to keep the women “…physically restricted was, presumably, less likely to be mentally independent” (p. 15).

4. Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women

Nineteenth-century China is the last period of dynasty’s might in China before being overthrowing by revolutionists in the early twentieth century. It belongs still to pre-modern China. According to Hook (1991) in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China, the status of women in the era of pre-modern China “…asserted the superiority of men over women, supporting that perception with its ethical justifications, legal codes and customary practices” (p. 95). The practice of footbinding had crippled Chinese women since they were in early childhood. Then, the unequal state of women still obviously remains. For instance, a woman has a little choice in her life but to marry into the household of her spouse, leave her natal family, face a potential conflict with her mother-in-law and gain the security by giving birth a son as well.

Meanwhile, one module entitled Western Views of Chinese Women: Introduction maintains that women in nineteenth-century China followed gender norms based on Confucianism. The norms emphasize on the family as the primary social unit and advocate the primacy of women in the domestic or inner realm. Furthermore, daughters are expected to obey their parents’ authority, assist their

   

mothers in domestic tasks, and, luckily in elite families, learn to read and write (Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, 2004).

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents theoretical writing and study. It provides relevant theories which are going to support the study. This chapter consists of three sections namely review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework. The review of related studies contains the overview of comments and previous studies on similar topics or related ones. The review of related theories covers the elaboration of the theories which are directly relevant to the study topic, namely theories on male concepts of manhood, theories on sociological concepts in living in a society, review of Chinese society in the nineteenth century, review of footbinding in China, and then review of Chinese women’s secret writing. Besides, this chapter provides a theoretical framework which covers the elaboration of the theories which are related to the study.

A. Review of Related Studies

In this study, the writer presents some reviews and comments on Lisa See’s fourth novel, Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. The writer did not find a journal that discusses the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan specifically on the topic of this study. All she found were some reviews of the book as a whole.

In her book review, Clea Simon discusses the contribution of Lily, the narrator of the novel. Simon focuses on how Lily learned many life values during the process of her life. Simon states that:

In Lily’s life, those connections—like the communication—are often flawed. And for all that she learns from the refined Snow Flower, Lily fails to spot some basic human weaknesses, or to recognize them for what they are. People can communicate, she learns, but they can also deceive (“Novel’s Powerful Prose Brings History to Life”, 2005).

Psychologically, Lily wants to show us that somehow people can make mistakes by not believing any longer in her very best friend or lao tong, as she is called in the novel. The misunderstanding led Lily and Snow Flower to be separated, leaving regret in the end. Similar to Simon, Caroline Baker, the guest author in her article, commented on the relationship between Lily and Snow Flower, which was wonderful at the beginning but became progressively more sorrowful at the end. The higher status of Lily made her act more powerfully than anyone else in Tongkou village—where she lived after she got married. Lily’s betrayal of her laotong left her with a great regret.

Unlike Simon and Baker, Ellen Emry Heltzel in her article points out that the realm that Lisa See recreated in the novel really did exist in China about two centuries ago. Heltzel discusses the phenomenon of “a society of women who were paired for life and had their own secret language” (“Bound Women in Charge”, 2005). She comments that the novel leads the reader to “see the world from the inside out, through the window of someone who never transcends her time and place yet serves as a compassionate and insightful witness”. Julie Brickman’s article comments on the “stunning” culture the author describes in the novel. Brickman notes that nineteenth-century China showed a culture in which education was limited to men—the situation that motivated the women to create their secret writing. Besides, the women at that time endured the agony of

footbinding and had to walk on their tiny feet as well (“Unfolding Secrets: An Old Woman’s Memoirs Reveal a Culture Wrapped in a Story”, 2005).

Meanwhile, Victoria A. Brownworth’s article talks about the strict adherence to Confucian rules. This meant that their gender defined every aspect of the lives of the Chinese women in the nineteenth century. Brownworth states that at that time a Chinese woman’s life was “rigidly defined and programmed by her gender: footbinding, arranged marriage, virtual imprisonment by both her family of origin and her husband’s family” (“Secrets, Misery in a Chinese Woman’s Tale”, 2005)

In this study, the writer is going to reveal how footbinding and the women’s secret writing in nineteenth-century China are portrayed in the novel and how male domination relates to footbinding and the women’s secret writing as well. Both will be formulated in sociological scope. Furthermore, this study has never been conducted by other writers.

B. Review of Related Theories

The theories used in this study are male concepts of manhood, concepts of living in a society, sociological review of Chinese society in the nineteenth century, sociological review of footbinding in China, and then sociological review of Chinese women’s secret writing.

1. Male Concepts of Manhood

There are some interpretations about male ideology. Men seem destined to fight with nature in which they should deal with society. According to Turner

quoted by Dubbert in his book A Man’s Place: Masculinity in Transition (1979), it is stated that,

He came from a civilization based on individual competition, and he brought the conception with him to the wilderness where a wealth of resources, and innumerable opportunities gave it a new scope (p. 80). From the quotation above, it can be seen that the spirit of competition helped men develop the qualities of characters needed to survival. They have a better chance of survival since they have these capabilities. Men have qualities of courage, endurance, and muscular strength, which make them more adaptable than women to a changing environment. Women, however, according to Patrick, developed very different qualities: “such as good manners and good taste in matters of etiquette” (as cited in Dubbert, 1979, p. 91).

The system in the society tends to agree if it is easier for men to dominate a society than for women. Men have more power in controlling because they have strong sense of conation—a mental process that makes someone wants or decides to do something. They have the nature to think before act. Therefore, they are more likely to lead a society.

According to E. A. Ross’ theory quoted by Sorokin in his book Contemporary Sociological Theories (1928); men have desires which are derived from social forces. Then, social force is classified into two parts. They are the natural and the cultural. It can be seen in the following quotation:

The natural desires are: (a) appetitive (hunger, thirst, sex-appetite); (b) hedonic (fear, aversion to pain, love of ease, warmth, sensuous pleasure); (c) egotic (shame, envy, love of liberty, of glory, of power); (d) affective (sympathy, sociability, love, hate, jealousy, anger, revenge); (e) recreative (play impulses, love of self-expression). The cultural desires are: (a) religious; (b) ethical; (c) aesthetic; (d) intellectual (p. 642).

Furthermore, men can be separated according to their interests. The interests men have according to Small in Sorokin include: health, wealth, sociability or prestige, knowledge, beauty, and rightness (p. 644).

Talking about manhood means talking about gender. Even though gender means social sex, it is also close to the difference between men and women. According to Crawford in her book Talking Difference on Gender and Language (1995), the different way of acting of men and women is influenced by a way of creating differences. That is why the men confirm that they are different from the women. It is supported by the following quotation.

When men and women are treated differently in ordinary daily interactions, they may come to behave differently in return. Thus, gender can be conceived as a self-fulfilling prophecy—a set of processes by which gender difference is created, the observed differences are conflated with sex, and belief in sex difference is confirmed (p.14).

2. Concepts of Living in a Society

To live in a society, there are some norms that have to be accepted by the people who live there. Social norms which regulate the society are divided into two: formal norms and non formal norms. Formal norms include the norms which come from formal institutions or the government. Formal norms are usually in the written form. Meanwhile, non formal norms are not in written form and many more than formal ones. Non formal norms include the usage, folkways, and mores. (Maryati and Suryawati, 2001)

According to Suprapto quoted by Maryati and Suryawati (2001), there are five major functions of social norms:

1. to provide such a tool to standardize the social value of a society or a group, 2. to direct the society how to think and behave,

3. to motivate someone to fulfill his social role as an individual and a member of a society,

4. to be a solidarity tool with the society in order to give security to all members of a society,

5. to be a controller of the human behavior so that people behave in an appropriate manner in the society they live in.

When people live in a society, they need an interaction with people who live surrounding them. In that interaction, status and status role become the important things. Empirically, status differentiation affects someone in the way that he/she interacts with others. People with higher status behave differently from the people with of lower status.

Social status is also commonly called as social stratification. Edgar and Sedgwick (2002) explained that it can be called social stratification when the separate groupings in a society can be seen as hierarchical. In sociology, there are three major types of strata. Edgar and Sedgwick named them as a caste system, an estate system, and industrial societies. The following is the explanation of those types of strata in society by Edgar and Sedgwick (2002):

In a caste system, different strata are characterized in terms of ethnic purity; with no movement between castes (so that a person lives his or her entire life within the caste into which he or she is born). In an estate system, typical of feudal societies, again there is little and no mobility between strata. The estates are defined through land ownership and bondage. In industrial societies, stratification is in terms of class, with classes understood as economically defined (p. 366).

Moreover, according to Ralph Linton in Maryati and Suryawati (2001), there are three ways to have status in a society: ascribed status, achieved status, and assigned status. Ascribed status is granted to people since they were born e.g. a man of noble birth. This status can be found in feudal societies or extrovert societies. Achieved status is the status which is achieved by people who have a try at getting it. They are able to get it without the influence of others because it depends on the individual himself. For example, to be a lawyer, someone must learn and graduate from the Faculty of Law so that he gets the title of lawyer. Then, assigned status is the status which is given by a particular party. Assigned status is similar to achieved status in how this status is given to someone who has struggled for something. However, assigned status is given by a person or a group of higher status. For instance, in the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II gave the musician Elton John the title of ‘Sir’ because of his commitment to music in Great Britain.

3. Sociological Review of Chinese Society in the Nineteenth Century The setting of time in the novel is the nineteenth century. In China, the nineteenth century was still the pre-modern era. The nineteenth century was the end of traditional Chinese society era before entering the transitional era. Nineteenth-century China was under the Qing Dynasty (Manchu Dynasty) which was ended in 1912. By this time, in late imperial China, there were some growth and changes which were influencing society. The rebellions were aroused,

consolidating the imperial China. The dynasty was finally overthrown by revolutions led by Sun Yat Sen (Lynn Pan, 1998, p. 367).

Traditional Chinese society was institutionalized according to Confucian belief. The teachings of Confucianism had already become the determinants of their life. International Encyclopedia of the Social Science mentions the five basic Chinese relationships which were based on the ethos of legitimate authorities of Confucian ideals. They were: “emperor-subject, father-son, elder brother-younger brother, husband-wife, and friend-friend (only the last relationship expresses egalitarian values) – (p. 410). This was called ‘Thrice Following’ which was taken from the book of Confucian Book of Rites that can be seen in the next quotation.

Thrice Following stated that the woman must obey her father and elder brothers in her youth, her husband after marriage and her son after the death of her husband. (Jackson, 1997, p. 16)

In traditional Chinese society, the connection between state and social system was dominated by a status group. The form of a status groups or gentry is specifically one of the most important functions of a social system. The system itself was already influenced by the colonial that started driving China to the revolution towards the empire. Gentry have a higher position in society and then determine the status.

The traditional Chinese designation of that group as “officials, landlords, and notables” suggests that there were three different sources of status – in effect, power, wealth, and prestige.

(International Encyclopedia of the Social Science, p. 411) When the Emperor was overthrown to the Manchus (Qing Dynasty), the rule was tightened. The result which was more repressive affected Chinese women at that time. According to Richard J. Smith (1994), Chinese women were

becoming “subject to standards of fidelity and female propriety more rigid that at any previous time in Chinese history” (p. 245). Women were not permitted the literary education though women and men possess the same abilities. The women also had to remain at home and had no public voice. This point of view is related to the Chinese ancient belief dealing with Yin and Yang. Men and women lived in different realms. Fairbank (1986) stated that

Women were fitted into the social and cosmic order (which were a continuum) by invoking the principles of Yang and Yin. All things bright, warm, active, male, and dominant were Yang while all things dark, cold, passive, female, and yielding were Yin (p. 68).

The inequality between men and women was the proof of male domination in China before the transitional era. Woman held the secondary status in a household and had no power at all. They were also considered as “a poor social investment in traditional China, since after years of nurture the majority of them would simply marry to become members of other households” (Smith, 1994, p. 248). After all the Chinese women faced in their live as worthless humans, they had to endure the agony of footbinding which will be elaborated much clearer in the next point.

To amuse themselves, Chinese women had a deep relationship with each other. There are two kinds of this relationship. The first is sworn sisters. Sworn sisters were for a group of four up to five women. They gathered in one place called the women’s chamber in one of the households. They might visit each other. In the visits, they were engaged in chatting, embroidering, waving, and other women’s activities. Meanwhile, the second type is lao tong. It is different. Lao tong was for two women only. It was much more exclusive because it was

determined by the time of year when they were born. Lao tong was also an everlasting relationship.

To communicate with each other, they used a written language called nu shu which was secretly practiced away from the influence of the men. By nu shu, they wrote many things such as poems, prose, and even their life story on a fan, shoes, or handkerchiefs.

4. Sociological Review of Footbinding in China

The practice of footbinding had been in China since the twelfth century under the Southern Song Dynasty (Pan, 1998, p. 364). Footbinding was practiced formerly by women in the royal palaces as the symbol of royalty, the nobility and the very rich. However, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the practice of footbinding started spreading throughout China (Jackson, 1997, p. 11).

The origin of footbinding is still unknown. Jackson said that there are various opinions about its origin, based on historical evidence, local tradition, and scholarly conjecture. Not all Chinese tribes did footbinding. There were only Manchu, the conqueror of Ming Dynasty and the Hakka people who could avoid binding their feet. Most footbinding was done by the Han Chinese women (Fairbank, 1986, p. 69). Han people were more than 94 percent of China’s total population (Jackson, p.18).

Footbinding was started, crippling the girls, when they were aged five to seven. This practice was done with some specific aims. According to Naquin and Rawski (1987, p. 80), their toes were tightly bound and the feet were wrapped to

keep them the small size which was considered desirable for wives. It means that if a Chinese woman bound her feet, she had more chance to have a good marriage arrangement.

Besides, Fairbank explained that small feet would lead them to have respect from the community as well (p. 69). In short, this practice of footbinding was obligatory for the Chinese girl so that she would be marriageable and successful in her future life. Meanwhile, in Smith’s opinion, this deforming of the feet was “…both a symptom and a cause of ever more rigid sexual segregation. …brought both status and suffering to Chinese women” (1994, p. 249-50). Status played the role of spreading the footbinding. Considering this practice was formerly practiced in the imperial period by a beautiful dancer, other women in the imperial period were envious and then also bound their feet in hopes of finding a better position (Jackson, p.12). It was also followed by the poorest outside the palaces. Then, there was a belief that a girl with the feet bound would be accepted well in the afterlife.

Footbinding was apparently the commonest form of sexual fetish for men. Fairbank said that these bound feet were erogenous areas (p.70). In addition, Jackson stated that by “just thinking of the feet or calling them by one of their special, erotically related names was adequate stimulus for many men to achieve full arousal” (p. 109). Therefore, the bound feet are sexually more important than face or body shape. The smell of the feet was also stimulating.

Many men were excited by the smell of the unwashed, perspiring feet. Licking unbound feet, biting them, or taking the entire little foot into the mouth were among sexually stimulating activities some men enjoyed. And

for others there was a sexual satisfaction in the sound made when the feet were manipulated between the hands. (Jackson, p.110-11)

Footbinding was also aimed to preserve the female chastity. Fairbank stated that it was like a guarantee. By having the feet bound, women were kept within the household so that they could not go far away from the household (p. 70). Meanwhile, Jackson said that it was a tenet of Confucianism that the woman should not be heard outside her own home (p. 16).

Jackson quoted from Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio by P’u Sung-hing as known as Liu-hsien translated by Herbert A. Giles (1880) the reasons why this tradition could remain for a thousand years (p. 18-21). The reasons were as follows.

1. If a girl’s feet are not bound, people say she is not like a woman but like a man and they laugh at her, call her names, and her parents are ashamed of her. 2. Girls are like flowers. It is very important that their feet be bound short so that

they will walk beautifully, with mincing steps, swaying gracefully, thus showing they are persons of respectability. People praise them.

3. One of good family does not wish to marry a woman with long feet.

4. One who has large feet will live in misery. She will do the rough work, does not sit in a sedan chair, and does not eat the best food. She is also wetted by the rain, tanned by the sun, blown upon by the wind.

5. Those with unbound feet are low and mean.

6. Girls are like gold, like gems. They should stay in their own house. If they do not bind their feet, they go here and there with unfitting associates. They have no good name. They are like gems that are rejected.

7. Parents are covetous. They think small feet are pleasing and will command a high price for a bride.

The practice of footbinding had already been banned by Manchus in the beginning of Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). They had threatened practitioners with severe penalties. Fairbank stated “The Manchu emperors many times inveighed against it in hortatory edicts, but to no avail.” (p. 69). The scholars, both Chinese and Western also disagreed with the practice of footbinding. Though the women had to obey the Confucian women’s rule, they did not have to bind their feet so that they would be kept safely in the household. Then, anti-footbinding movements showed up at the beginning of the twentieth century. Jackson noted that after the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, the Republic of China’s government under the leader Sun Yat Sen increased the pressured to prohibit the practice of footbinding. That was the end of the footbinding era in China.

5. Sociological Review of Chinese Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu)

Like footbinding, women’s secret writing or commonly called nu shu was Chinese women’s business. The book Origins of Chinese Language (2009, p. 52) defines nu shu as the women’s secret writing from Jiangyong county in the Hunan province of southern China created by the Yao people. Nu shu was developed a thousand years ago. It appears to be the only written language in the world to have been created by women exclusively for their own use. Nu shu was passed down the generations from a woman to another woman. It was carefully guarded from men.

The creating of this women’s secret writing was still mysterious. Nevertheless, it appeared in the feudal era before the twentieth century. Nu shu was created because at that time, the separation of men and women deepered gender difference in the society. Men had more chances to learn so there was no need for them to create a new form of writing. They used the existing writing. Local women in Jiangyong county created their own writing. They wrote it on paper, handkerchiefs, and a fan. They even embroidered the characters in cloth. Its purpose was as a communication tool between women to share their knowledge and their lives with other women.

Nu shu reflect women’s joy and sorrow. In “Recording Women’s Feeling”, it is stated that nu shu is used to record Chinese women’s beauty and ugliness in their lives. Women were not allowed to both receive education and take part in society. They did not have power or status as men in the home. Many Chinese women were abused and exploited under strict control by their husbands and mothers-in-law after marriage. That is why, nu shu helped them to stay in touch with their female friends and discuss their feelings. Through the letters, they complained about oppression and yearn of sexual liberation.

In “Nu Shu” which features writing systems and languages of the world, there is some information about nu shu:

1. The Nu shu script consists of between 1000 and 1500 characters. 2. Nu shu is written in vertical columns running from top to bottom and

from right to left.

3. Many nu shu characters are based on Chinese characters, while some are modelled on embroidery stitches and designs.

4. Nu shu characters represent pronunciation, unlike Chinese characters, which represent pronunciation and meaning.

In addition, Nu shu faces extinction now. The last original writer, Yang Guanyi, was died. She died in September, 2004. Today, most of the young women in Jiangyong County do not want to learn nu shu because they regard it as useless.

C. Theoretical Framework

This study would like to analyze the footbinding and the women’s secret writing or nu shu. Besides, both are going to be related to the male domination which prevailed in the nineteenth century as depicted in the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Related theories must be used as the base for the analysis later. Since this study uses the sociological approach, some sociological concepts are needed to help the writer comprehend the matter sociologically.

To support the analysis the writer will use some theories. In order to answer the first problem, the writer is going to apply the review on footbinding practice in China as well as the review of women’s secret writing. The writer, later in the analysis in Chapter IV, will compare and contrast the footbinding and women’s secret writing in the reviewed books and what happen in the novel. The description of Chinese society in the nineteenth century is also applied. It is also helpful to describe the sociological context of the practice of footbinding and women’s secret writing whether or not it is dealing with pride, beauty, knowledge, identity, social stratification, and the social function.

Moreover, to answer the second problem, the writer is going to apply the theories on manhood to reveal the factors or aspects which influence the practice of footbinding and women’s secret writing.

24   

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

The discussion in this chapter is about the methodology in conducting this study. This chapter consists of three parts. The first part discusses the object matter of the study and contains a brief description of what the work is generally about. The second part presents the approach employed in the study. The third part describes the method used and the steps taken in analyzing the work and answering two questions formulated in Problems Formulation in Chapter I.

A. Object of the Study

This study deals with the novel entitled Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, written by a Chinese-American woman, Lisa See. From her appearance, See does not look like an Asian-American woman. She has red hair and a freckled complexion. However, See has a deep connection and roots in Chinese culture. Her childhood was spent in the Chinatown section in Los Angeles, United States of America. Due to her Chinese familial background, See always uses the Chinese background in her writings though she is just one-eighth Chinese. In a note about her by the publisher of the novel, Lisa See is the author of the New York Times bestselling novels: Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, Shanghai Girls, Peony in Love, Flower Net, The Interior, and Dragon Bones, as well as the widely acclaimed memoir On Gold Mountain. She is named as the 2001 National Woman

   

of the Year by the Organization of Chinese American Women. In addition, this novel had been cinematized in 2011.

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan consists of 340 pages. It was published in 2005 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, London. It is a work of historical fiction whose story tells about Chinese women in the nineteenth century. The setting is Yongming County (now Jiangyong County) in Province of Hunan, People’s Republic of China. In addition, the author has followed the Chinese historical background in the nineteenth century when the main character, Lily, was born in 1823. The novel ends in the very early twentieth century when Lily enters her sitting quietly life course at the age of 80 in 1903.

The novel is divided into four chapters which represent a certain period of time in the lives of the major characters, Lily and Snow Flower. The first chapter contains six sub-chapters which talk about the major characters’ early childhood including the process of footbinding and becoming laotong then sharing a fan for stories using nu shu. The second chapter is divided into four sub-chapters. These sub-chapters tell about the major characters’ training process of household tasks and skills. Their marriages have already been arranged and they are ready to move to their husbands’ households. It also tells about the truth behind Snow Flower’s life. The third chapter is the climax of the whole story. It is divided into six sub-chapters. These sub-chapters tell about their marriages and the pressure they faced to give birth to sons. Lily and Snow Flower share their joy and sorrow as well. Furthermore, the misunderstanding by misreading nu shu induced Lily to send a letter of vituperation to Snow Flower. This chapter ends with Snow Flower’s

   

death. The last chapter is not divided into any sub-chapters. It tells about Lily’s regret for what she has done to Snow Flower.

When Lily was seven years old, she was paired with a laotong or ‘old same’ named Snow Flower. “A laotong relationship is as significant as a good marriage.” (See, 2005, p. 56). Choosing the laotong requires consultation with a matchmaker so that a girl find an ‘old same’ who is like her in everyway. They are born exactly at the same time under the sign of the horse. Laotong is an exclusive lifetime relationship which includes emotional companionship and eternal loyalty. Together Lily and Snow Flower both endured the agony of footbinding, which according to the tradition in Yongming County they had to follow in order to make them more marriageable. By binding their feet, they were also brought to the perfection of being a woman—bearing a son.

To communicate with each other, Snow Flower firstly sent a message to Lily to introduce herself. On that silk fan, Snow Flower wrote in nu shu, a secret language which Chinese women created in order to communicate in secret, unknown to the men. Later, both of them used the fan to send messages, compose stories on handkerchiefs or weave into cloth. Nu shu was also used to recite the stories and poems from the prior dynasties.

In nineteenth-century Chinese society which is still in the era of pre-modern China, women’s position was inferior to men’s position. The domination of men was seen in every aspect of life. They lived under the Qing Dynasty during which Confucian instruction still ruled well. A woman should obey her father, her husband, and later her son. It was not considered appropriate for women to learn

   

to read and write. They were allowed to work only in the house. They could engage in kitchen tasks, embroidery, chatting, chanting, and even only sitting in the women’s chamber—the only place that men could not enter. In this situation, Lily and Snow Flower lived. To be more marriageable their feet are bound. If they had perfect feet, they would marry with a man of high status. Lily had perfect feet—about three inches in length—so she married a man from the richest family in Tongkou. Meanwhile, Snow Flower did not. They had different fortunes. She married a butcher.

Due to not having right to education, they used women’s secret writing to write letters, songs, prayers, popular stories, etc. By nu shu, Lily and Snow Flower could share their hopes, dreams, and also accomplishments. They also shared their sorrows and joys in their lives of being a wife and a mother.

B. Approach of the Study

To analyze the problem, the writer employs the sociological approach as the appropriate approach to deal with the relation of male domination to footbinding and Chinese women’s secret writing in the nineteenth century. According to X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia, sociological criticism examines the literary work in the cultural, economic, and political context. It also explores the relationship between the characters and the society. However, sociological criticism also examines the author’s sociological status to check whether or not the author’s particular background influences his/her literary work. Besides, the

   

social content can also promote what cultural, economic, and political values are present, implicitly and explicitly, in a text (Kennedy and Gioia, 1998).

Sociology specifically explores on why and how a condition happens in a society. Kammeyer, Ritzer, Yetman (1994) classified sociology into at least fifty specializations. One of them is the sociology of culture. The sociology of culture is based on the interrelationships within the complex unity (Raymond, 1977). It means that one person will influence the other when they live in a society which consists of people of many different races, religions, and cultures. The classification ‘sociology of culture’ draws our attention to the usefulness of sociology in culture studies.

One of cultural studies goals is to go beyond the limits or borders of a specific discipline such as literary criticism or history (Guerin et al. 1996). Guerin et al. describe that goal as “scrutinizing the cultural phenomena in a text and also drawing conclusions about the changes in textual phenomena over time”. Cultural studies looks at the cultural phenomenon of literary work. Footbinding and the women’s secret writing are the cultural phenomena in the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. In this study, the writer would like to examine how the cultural phenomena in the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan such as footbinding and women’s secret writing influenced the women’s life in the nineteenth century. By using this sociological approach, the analysis of the relation of male domination to footbinding and Chinese women’s secret can be effectively done.

   

C. Method of the Study

In completing the analysis, the method conducted in doing the study was library research. It means that data was gathered by reading and taking important notes. The primary source and secondary sources were used to analyze the study. The primary source was the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. The second source used was derived from some other sources, such as books, articles found through the internet and in encyclopedias which dealt with the topic discussed and supported the idea of the study.

Moreover, there were some steps taken in analyzing the study. Firstly, the novel was bought by online shopping. Then the writer read the novel several times to understand what it generally and specifically was about. After that, the writer took notes about some important things found in the novel about footbinding and the women’s secret writing. It was needed so that all information about those two things in the novel could be grasped so that the writer could describe it quite clearly. It also helped to understand how the society influenced Chinese women’s life in the nineteenth century. Secondly, by using some supporting references, the writer made a critical analysis. Thirdly, the writer analyzed the social phenomena in the novel which are footbinding and the women’s secret writing. Then she tried to relate it to the sociological aspect of why those phenomena could exist in nineteenth-century China by using some sociological concepts of living in a society. Finally, she drew some conclusions from the study based on the results of the analysis and gave some implications and suggestions for the benefit of further researchers and educators.

30 CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

In this chapter, I would like to answer two questions which have been proposed in problem formulation in Chapter I of this study. There are two major parts that are analyzed in this chapter. The first part is footbinding and women’s secret writing depicted in the novel. The second part presents male domination in nineteenth-century Chinese women’s footbinding and secret writing.

A. The Depiction of the Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan

In this section, there are three points described. The first point is about the practice of footbinding and women’s secret writing in the novel. The second point is about whether the development of footbinding was together or along with women’s secret writing. The last point discusses the importance of footbinding and women’s secret writing for the Chinese women in the nineteenth century.

1. The Practice of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan

The practice of footbinding and women’s secret writing in the nineteenth century China will be discussed in relation to their social function ruled in Chinese society. As stated in Chapter II of this study, social function served to standardize the social values of a society. Social function deals with how certain

   

traditional practices are created and how they serve to standardize how a person is expected to live, think, and act/behave well in that society. The social function of traditional practices is to motivate members of society to fulfill the social roles expected by them (Maryati and Suryawati, 2001). The Chinese women in the novel had already internalized very well the values of their society and knew how they should respond towards the cultural phenomena of footbinding and lack of access to education. The two main characters in the novel, Lily and Snow Flower, obeyed all the rules in their society without confronting at all. Both of them realized, as Chinese women, they were obliged to obey their father, their husband, and their son. This was the reason why they obeyed when their feet were bound and when they were not allowed to study like the boys.

a. Footbinding in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan

Footbinding itself was described in the novel not only as an obligation that a girl had to submit to when she was about six years old but also as the determination of the social status they would have if the binding was perfect. The desire to improve social status was the main cause of the practice of footbinding in China. The two main characters, Lily and Snow Flower, were bound at the same time because they were lao tong which means they were sworn sisters until the end of their life. Lily came from a poor family. Her father was a farmer. Snow Flower, however, was introduced as coming from a wealthy family. Later, it is revealed that Snow Flower lied. Her formerly wealth family was already bankrupt. It means both of them came from poor families. By binding their feet, there was a

   

hope that their life could be changed. They went through the ordeal of footbinding well. However, they had a different result in their footbinding. Lily had perfect feet that caused her to marry to a man from a rich family in Tongkou, but Snow Flower did not. This situation led her to marry a butcher.

The process of binding the feet was done very carefully by the girl’s mother. One false step, it could result in death. There are seven things to achieve a pair of perfectly bound feet. “They should be small, narrow, straight, pointed, and arched, yet still fragrant and soft in texture” (See, 2005, p. 31). The time needed to produce the desired effect was about two years. In these two years, the girls would feel extreme physical and mental pain. However, it was never felt as a big deal since there was a reward awaiting them. Its process is described by the narrator as follows.

Mama washed my feet and rubbed them with alum, to contract the tissue and limit the inevitable secretions of blood and pus. She cut my toenails as short as possible. During this time, my bandages were soaked, so that when they dried on my skin, they would tighten even more. Next, Mama took one end of a bandage, placed it on my instep, then pulled it over my four smallest toes to begin the process of rolling them underneath my foot. From here, she wrapped the bandage back around my heel. Another loop around the ankle was to get my toes and heel to meet, creating the cleft, but leaving my big toe to walk on. (See, p. 32)

As the writer mentioned before, footbinding was the obligatory for most Chinese women. Having a girl is already considered as a thing that a father cannot be proud of. It will also be an embarrassing thing for a family if their girl cannot find a husband. Jackson (2005) stated that “the worst thing that could happen to a Chinese woman of the past was to be deemed unmarriageable” (p. 12). Therefore, in order to be marriageable, a girl was forced to have tiny feet like a bud of a

   

lotus. This kind of thought was influenced by Confucian ideals which have two main thoughts, Three Obediences and Four Virtues. Because they lived in the Confucian society, the different realm of men and women was understood very well. This standardized how a woman should live in the family and society. It was no matter whether a woman came from a poor or a rich family. Every woman had to obey the rules. To be clearer, See describes the Confucian ideal dealing with the different realm of men and women as follows:

I also knew the difference between nei—the inner realm of the home—and wai—the outer realm of men—lay at the very heart of Confucian society. Whether you are rich or poor, emperor or slave, the domestic sphere is for women and the outside sphere is for men. Women should not pass beyond the inner chambers in their thoughts or in their actions. (See, p. 28-29) The girls had to bind their feet in order to be able to marry and later have a son. Footbinding became the most important phase that a woman had to go through in her life. This is supported by the quotation by the narrator: “All I knew was that footbinding would make me more marriageable and therefore bring me closer to the greatest love and greatest joy in a woman’s life—a son” (See, p. 31). If a girl does not marry, she will embarrass her family and be considered of no values. A Chinese old saying states: “’If a daughter doesn’t marry out, she’s not valuable; if fire doesn’t raze the mountain, the land will not be fertile.’” (See, p. 101)

So, the main function of footbinding for Chinese women was to determine their fate later: when a Chinese woman had a pair of perfect feet, they would be led to a bright future. Neither pretty face nor good body shape guaranteed them a

   

good marriage. The following quotation supports that having tiny feet is much more important than having a pretty face.

“The girl is indeed very lovely, but golden lilies are far more important in life than a pretty face. A lovely face is a gift from Heaven, but tiny feet can improve social standing. … It is not such a bad thing to make a good alliance for a daughter. A high family will bring you better connection, a better bride-price, and long-term political and economic protection.” (See, p. 25)

Then, Jackson (1997) stated that “The key attribute of the perfectly bound foot, of course, was length. Three inches, or even less, was the ideal, and only a foot this size earned the title of Golden Lily” (p. 24). From this quotation, it is clear that foot size mattered a lot. Besides, the perfectly bound feet were in the shape of a lotus bud. A good shape was a proof that a girl had passed successfully through the agony of footbinding, and therefore she was both disciplined and patient. Lily is able to show her discipline to pass it well. She is also patient to endure the pain caused by her rotten feet. Unfortunately, her sister, Third Sister, cannot pass it well because of her confrontation when her feet are bound. The infection led to her death. Therefore, a pair of perfect feet something a woman could be proud of.

The fact that women actually felt pride in their small feet shows that footbinding did indeed perform the social function of inducing women to accept yhr role and the behavior which the male-dominated society demanded of them. As stated above, a woman was expected to obey Confucian ideal: she belongs in the home and is not allowed to interfere in the men’s realm, and her acceptance of footbinding shows her acceptance of this ideal. Society for Chinese women is in their own house. It is because the women are not allowed to be outside in accordance with Confucian ideal. Confucius tells his follower that “’A woman

   

should never be heard outside her own home.’” (Jackson, p. 16) To be obedient is a manner she should do while to be a woman who never thinks interfering men’s business is a thought they already have.

Another social function found in the novel is that footbinding is a motivation for the women to fulfill themselves as members of their society. It is called a motivation because footbinding led them to be accepted as a true lady. If they have a pair of big feet, they are considered as similar to a maid or the lowest-ranked woman in the household. Of course, a mother wants good things for her daughter so she binds her daughter’s feet. Meanwhile, a girl must also have a dream of a good future and what she will look like then. Therefore, the mother supports her daughter to succeed in enduring the pain of footbinding.

“A true lady lets no ugliness into her life,” she repeated again and again, drilling the words to me. “Only through pain will you have beauty. Only through suffering will you find peace. I wrap, I bind, but you will have the reward.” (See, p. 38)

By the quotation above, Lily’s mother supports Lily to survive though she has to suffer a lot. Lily’s mother gives her a view that she will have precious things if she is able to pass it. Beauty, peace, and reward (having a good marriage and having sons) are a dream offered by Lily’s mother. These things become a motivation for Lily in reaching her future later. As an ordinary girl, she wants a bright future. She wants to have a husband who comes from a good family, have sons that will make her mother-in-law proud of her, and later she will be the lady of the household. Not only in the household, may she also become the lady of the village.

   

b. Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan

Women’s secret writing is commonly called as nu shu. By having ability in nu shu, women have a chance to be more educated. Although they will not get education like men have, at least by nu shu they will be enriched with the past stories, poems, and other literary works. When Lily is still little, she cannot see the differences between nu shu and men’s writing. As time goes by, she can differentiate it. Nu shu is actually difficult to recognize because it seems like only scratches made by pen. Nu shu characters are described in the novel in the following quotation:

But now I can say that men’s writing is bold, with each character easily contained within a square, while our nu shu looks like mosquito legs or bird prints in dust. Unlike men’s writing, a nu shu character does not represent a specific word. Rather, our characters are phonetic in nature. As a result, one character can represent every spoken word with that same sound. So while a character might make a sound that creates the words for “pare,” “pair,” or “pear,” context usually makes the meaning clear. Still, much care has to be taken to make sure we do not misinterpret meaning. (See, 2005, p. 29-30)

The quotation above shows that it surely not easy to learn nu shu. A specific ability is needed to interpret it correctly. Nu shu itself has many advantages for women. “It can be used to write letters, songs, autobiographies, lessons on womanly duties, prayers to the goddess, and, of course, popular stories” (See, p. 30). The media to write on can be a paper or a fan which is written upon with brush and ink. Another way is by embroidering onto a handkerchief or weaving into cloth.

There are two important things about nu shu. They are “men must never know that it exists and men must not touch it in any form” (See, p. 30). Therefore,

   

the women are really careful to keep it a secret. There are actually some situations that will save them so that men will not know it. Women usually wrote when they are in women’s chamber. Because Confucianism tells them all to appreciate each realm, men were not allowed to enter this room. In this room, women could do anything, such as singing, embroidering, babysitting, weaving cloth, and of course writing. In addition, they could write at noon when their husband or their brothers went to work. This situation created a little possibility or chance to be caught by men indeed. Still, they had to be careful especially when it was sent out.

Lily and Snow Flower are also careful in sending the fan to each other. It has already been stated before that Lily and Snow Flower are a laotong. They cannot be separated because this laotong match is about eternity. Once it is made, it is not able to be broken. Even this laotong match has as deep a meaning and heart as a marriage. This is supported by the following quotation.

“Like a marriage between a man and woman, the kind ones go with kind ones, the pretty ones go with pretty ones, and the clever ones go with clever ones. But unlike marriage, this relationship should remain exclusive. … You understand my meaning, girls? This is a joining of two hearts that cannot be torn apart by distance, disagreement, loneliness, better marriage position, or by letting other girls—and later women— come between you.” (See, p. 68)

Then, a laotong is made by choice and offers lasting companionship, while a marriage is not and has only one purpose—to have sons.

Having a laotong is a special opportunity that a girl has. It is completely different from a sworn sisterhood. Laotong involves two girls from different villages and lasts till the end of their life, while a sworn sisterhood involves several girls and ends at marriage (See, p. 26).

   

Women’s secret writing is described in the novel as the media that Lily and Snow Flower used to communicate with each other. Since they lived in different villages, Lily in Puwei village and Snow Flower in Tongkou village, they needed such a communication tool.

At first, Lily learns to write nu shu from Aunt. In her household, only Aunt and Elder Sister are able to write nu shu. Meanwhile, Snow Flower also learns nu shu in her own home. She is taught by her mother. Lily and Snow Flower start their journey in writing nu shu on a fan. This fan journey starts when Snow Flower sends Lily a silk fan to introduce herself to Lily. Through this first nu shu, the relationship between both of them is truly started.

Snow Flower offers Lily a relationship of being a laotong. Here the first words Snow Flower writes to Lily:

I understand there is a girl of good character and women’s learning in your home. You and I are of the same year and the same day. Could we not be sames together? (See, p. 56)

At first, Lily cannot recognize well all the words Snow Flower wrote. She only recognizesthe words: girl, good, women, home, you, I. It shows that nu shu is not an easy thing to study. Snow Flower’s ability in nu shu is already better than Lily’s ability. Lily is helped by Aunt to understand the whole part. Snow Flower’s words are unusual words. The words she uses shows that she is clever. Even the words she uses make Lily and Aunt both frightened and excited. When Snow Flower visits Lily’s house, Lily learns many new characters from her. Even Aunt also learns from her. Many characters she got are coming from her brother’s writing and also her mother.

   

Some she got from sneaking peeks at her brother’s studies, since many nu shu characters are only italicized of men’s characters, but others came from Snow Flower’s mother, who was extremely well versed in our women’s secret writing. (See, p. 87)

Moreover, Nu shu has a social function a tool for women to be able to communicate with their natal family when they cannot reach them. It can be described as a solidarity tool with the society, in this case the family. Nu shu is used in order to give security to all the member of a society (Maryati and Suryawati, 2001). Because they easily cannot be out of their realm, the existence of nu shu is very helpful.

The condition that girls will be out of their home and live with their husband’s family consciously becomes the consideration for the girls to learn nu shu. They obviously do not know what will happen in their life after marrying. The fear that the mother-in-law may be cruel, abusive, always complaining and criticizing or their husbands may be rough and may not really appreciate them well are haunting them.

Lily and Snow Flower are told that learning nu shu is important to keep in touch with their natal family. They are afraid whether or not they will be treated well by their in-laws. This is supported by this quotation: “…but this was nothing compared to how I felt when she talked about my husband and my future in-laws” (See, p. 92). It shows that Lily was worried about her new family, but Snow Flower told her that her new family must treat well and asked her to be calm instead of afraid and uncomfortable. Lily and Snow Flower understand it well so they learn more characters.

   

However, since one character may have several meanings, nu shu can cause misinterpreting in meaning. One must look at the context to get the meaning. See wrote that

Men’s writing takes a lifetime to learn and understand. Women’s writing is something we pick up as girls, and we rely on context to coax meaning (p. 201).

This becomes a crucial thing that affects the relationship between Lily and Snow Flower. Lily misinterpreted what Snow Flower wanted to say in the fan. Due to that, Lily embarrassed Snow Flower in front of many people. If it is said that nu shu will secure them, it is not exactly right. Nu shu, the thing that makes them become one, makes them apart. However, referring to the function, nu shu is the connection tool to keep the users in with their family or their friends.

2. The Development of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing as Described in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan

In this section, the writer presents two points of the development of footbinding and women’s secret writing in the novel. The first is to discover the legendary development of those two things as told in the novel. The second is to explore whether or not the development of footbinding and women’s secret writing in the novel is described all along. It means that whether or not from the beginning of the story, footbinding is described along with nu shu.

The history of footbinding is not clearly known. There are multiple theories tried to explain the origin of footbinding. Nevertheless, footbinding in the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is explained as a tradition for girls in some

Appendix D

Pictures of Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu)

Picture 1 Picture 2

Picture 3 Picture 4 Picture 1-4. Nu shu on the fans

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Picture 6. Nu shu on the paper Picture 7. Nu shu on the wood

Picture 9. Nu shu phonetic symbols

Picture 10. Yang Guanyi, the last surviving original nu shu writer who passed away in September 2004

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Appendix D. 1.

Sources of Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu) Pictures Picture 1, 4, & 5 were taken from

http://wovenletters.blogspot.com/2009/12/nu-shu.html Picture 2 was taken from

http://digilander.libero.it/scuolaacolori/donne/nushu.htm Picture 3 was taken from

http://www.colby.edu/news_events/news_article/index.cfm?month=April_2010 Picture 6 was taken from

http://www.lisasee.com/onwriting.htm Picture 7 was taken from

http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ezine/2007-08/29/content_6064177.htm Picture 8 was taken from

http://www.ancientscripts.com/nushu.html Picture 9 was taken from

http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue1/nushu2.html Picture 10 was taken from

http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln270/Nushu-last1.htm Picture 11 was taken from

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ABSTRACT

Paskalin, Agatha Piscesia. 2011. Male Domination in the Footbinding and Secret Writing of Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women as Seen in Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is a historical fiction which tells about the lives of Chinese women in the nineteenth century which was still in the era of pre-modern China where women’s position was inferior to men’s position. During that period, Chinese women had been bearing lots of expectations from the society. There was a tradition which obliged them to bind their feet and forced them to endure the agony of footbinding. Besides, Chinese women were not allowed an education like that of men. This situation encouraged them to communicate with their friends and their natal families by using women’s secret writing or commonly called as nu shu. Therefore, the writer intends to discover male domination in the footbinding and nu shu of nineteenth-century Chinese women.

There are two problems formulated in this study. The first problem is how footbinding and nu shu are depicted in the novel. The second problem is how male domination relates to the practice of footbinding and nu shu.

Library research was conducted in this study. The primary source was taken from the novel Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, while the second source was derived from several books, articles found through the internet, and in encyclopedias which dealt with the topic discussed and supported the idea of the study. Furthermore, the approach applied in this study was sociological approach.

There were two results of the study. The first result showed that footbinding and nu shu were clearly depicted in the novel. Both had some social functions for Chinese women. The second results showed that male domination closely relates to the practice of footbinding and nu shu. Chinese women were the prisoners of tradition based on gender discrimination. This gender problem was the impact of Chinese society which used Confucian ideals as the guidance of their lives. The ideals demanded the women to obey their fathers, their husbands, and later their sons. Thus, Chinese women lived as the second-class citizens. Footbinding was an obligation for Chinese women because it could bring them to the life’s perfection. Footbinding dealt with being marriageable and the improvement of social status and the bright future as well. Furthermore, the bound feet became sexual fetish for men to achieve sexual pleasure. Then, the ideal that Chinese women were not allowed being outside the house caused them to be very far from having equal opportunities with men. Their right to education was not recognized. To escape from this situation, they wrote nu shu to communicate with their friends and their natal families and to express their feelings and creativities. Keywords: footbinding, nu shu, nineteenth-century Chinese women, male

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ABSTRAK

Paskalin, Agatha Piscesia. 2011. Male Domination in the Footbinding and Secret Writing of Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women as Seen in Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Snow Flower and the Secret Fan karya Lisa See merupakan novel fiksi sejarah yang menceritakan kehidupan perempuan Cina di abad kesembilan belas yang masih belum moderen dimana posisi perempuan lebih rendah dari pada laki-laki. Di masa itu, para perempuan Cina dituntut banyak harapan dari masyarakat. Adalah sebuah tradisi yang mengharuskan mereka mengikat kaki dan memaksa mereka untuk menahan sakit tak tertahankan karena pengikatan tersebut. Selain itu, mereka tidak diijinkan untuk mendapatkan pendidikan layaknya kaum laki-laki. Situasi ini mendorong mereka menulis dalam bahasa rahasia yang disebut nu shu untuk berkomunikasi dengan sahabat dan keluarga asal mereka. Oleh karena itu, penulis ingin mencari tahu tentang dominasi laki-laki dalam pengikatan kaki dan nu shu pada perempuan-perempuan Cina di abad kesembilan belas.

Ada dua rumusan masalah dalam studi ini. Rumusan masalah pertama adalah bagaimana pengikatan kaki dan nu shu digambarkan dalam novel. Rumusan masalah yang kedua ialah bagaimana hubungan dominasi laki-laki dengan praktik pengikatan kaki dan nu shu.

Studi ini menggunakan studi kepustakaan. Sumber utama diambil dari novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan sedangkan sumber-sumber sekunder berasal dari beberapa buku, ensiklopedia, dan artikel-artikel dari internet yang menunjang topik diskusi. Selain itu, pendekatan yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah pendekatan sosiologikal.

Hasil dari studi ini menunjukkan bahwa pengikatan kaki dan nu shu

digambarkan dengan jelas di dalam novel. Keduanya memiliki beberapa fungsi sosial bagi para perempuan Cina. Lalu, dominasi laki-laki ada kaitannya dengan praktik pengikatan kaki dan nu shu. Para perempuan Cina terpenjara dalam tradisi yang berdasarkan pada diskriminasi gender ini. Masalah gender ini merupakan dampak dari penggunaan ajaran Confucian sebagai pedoman hidup. Ajaran ini menuntut para perempuan untuk mematuhi laki-laki: ayah, suami, dan nantinya anak laki-laki mereka. Maka dari itu, para perempuan Cina hidup sebagai rakyat kelas kedua. Pengikatan kaki adalah sebuah keharusan bagi mereka supaya mereka mendapatkan kesempurnaan hidup. Dengan mengikat kaki mereka dapat menikah dan memperbaiki status sosial serta membawa mereka ke kehidupan yang lebih baik. Selain itu, kaki yang diikat menjadi kesenangan seksual bagi kaum laki-laki untuk mencapai kepuasan seksual. Kemudian, ajaran yang tidak memperbolehkan mereka ke luar rumah semakin menjauhkan mereka untuk mendapatkan kesempatan yang sama seperti laki-laki. Mereka tak punya hak akan pendidikan. Untuk keluar dari situasi ini, mereka menulis nu shu untuk berkomunikasi serta untuk mengekspresikan perasaan dan kreatifitas mereka. Kata kunci: pengikatan kaki, nu shu, perempuan Cina abad kesembilan belas,