Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:S:Soil & Tillage Research:Vol56.Issue1-2.Jul2000:
Soil & Tillage Research 56 (2000) 15±35
The soil and climate characterisation of benchmark sites for
lowland rice-based cropping systems research in
the Philippines and Indonesia
B.M. Schafera, G. Kirchhof b,*
a
b
School of Agriculture and Horticulture, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld 4343, Australia
School of Land and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia
Abstract
Soil morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical properties are described at ®ve locations in major rice (Oryza
sativa L.) growing areas of the Philippines (two sites) and in Indonesia (three sites) which were selected for lowland rice-based
cropping systems research. The data were used to classify the soils into the local soil series, soil taxonomy and The Australian
Soil Classi®cation systems. These data were intended to facilitate transfer of knowledge of improved farming systems
technology to other lowland rice growing areas in the regions. The soils were classi®ed as Andsisols, Inceptisols and Vertisols,
and were characterised by clay contents ranging from 370 to 870 g kgÿ1 and cation exchange values ranging between 17 and
68 cmol (p) kgÿ1 for whole soil. pH values were neutral to mildly alkaline. Land surface and root zone attributes were
qualitatively evaluated for limitations to post-rice crop production by interpretation of modi®ed surface and sub-soil properties
associated with rice production. Leakiness of bunds was also examined and mainly attributed to biological activity and for the
development of drainage channels. Climatic data are presented for each of the ®ve sites and the characteristics for potential
rainfall incidence are given for the post-rice dry season crop period. The soil sites selected have a range of properties which
are deemed to represent large areas of soils used for rice production in these two countries. # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Rice soils; Pedology; Soil properties; Climate
1. Introduction
Soils used for lowland rice-based cropping systems
in Indonesia and the Philippines are characterised by
high surface clay content and the fact that they are
puddled to aid water retention during the inundation
period of the rice crop cycle. Following a rice crop, the
potential to use sub-surface soil water for upland crop
*
Corresponding author. Present address: NSW Agriculture, PMB
944, Tamworth NSW 2340, Australia. Tel.: 61-2-67-63-1147;
fax: 61-2-67-63-1222.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Kirchhof).
production entails amelioration of the adverse effects
of puddling on surface soils. For successful crop
establishment the rainfall incidence following rice
is critical. Consequently soil±climate constraints are
a major consideration at the early stage of the dry
season crop cycle and seed bed preparation together
with timing of the establishment phase is critical
(Rahmianna et al., 1996).
Two sites in the Philippines and three sites in
Indonesia were selected as benchmark sites for an
international collaborative project to investigate
soil management strategies to increase yields of dry
season crops following rice. Components of these
0167-1987/00/$ ± see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 1 9 8 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 1 2 0 - 3
16
B.M. Schafer, G. Kirchhof / Soil & Tillage Research 56 (2000) 15±35
management strategies include various soil tillage
practices, application of mulch and amendments
and agronomic practices.
Comparison across the ®ve sites requires detailed
characterisation of soil properties using standard
description terminology and analytical methods for
classi®cation, according to soil taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 1994). Characterisation is also required to facilitate transfer of research outcomes to other rice
growing regions in terms of the combined effects
of soil±climate attributes and tillage treatments on
potential crop establishment, growth and yield of
dry season crops. This paper provides detailed
descriptions of the soils and climate at the ®ve experimental sites. This should avoid the use of incomplete
soil and climate descriptions in the following papers
from the project.
In the Philippines the soils of the Bulacan Province
have been described, mapped and classi®ed in detail
(Soil Survey Division, 1987). Soil description and
analytical characteristics were provided for soil near
the site at Manaoag in the Pangasinan Province.
However the data were not correlated with soils in
the region and terminology used was insuf®cient for
classi®cation.
The soils of East Java have been variously described
and classi®ed at the regional level but limited data
were available for the selected experimental sites. In
South Sulawesi, the soils of the Maros Agricultural
Research Station have been described (Ali and Sawijo,
1982) although the experimental site was outside of
the area surveyed.
The climate in the Philippines is governed by
northeast and southwest monsoon air streams. The
northwest monsoon originates in the cold Asiatic
winter anticyclone and produces a distinct dry season
from around October to May. The southwest monsoon
originates as an Indian Ocean anticyclone during the
southern hemisphere winter. It usually commences
in early May, reaches its maximum in¯uence in
August and abates in October. Monsoonal rains can
occur as early as April and May and persist until
November.
The Philippines is located in a region which is
recognised as having the greatest frequency of tropical
cyclones (typhoons) in the world (Flores and Balagot,
1969). They produce rainfall between May and
December with a mean monthly frequency of greater
than 0.5 throughout the year, but generally less than
1.0 between January and May.
The climate in Indonesia is dominated by monsoonal air streams which are at opposite times of the year
to those in the Philippines. Rainfall in Java is largely
affected by the position of the intertropical convergence zone which passes through twice annually. It is
in¯uenced by the mountainous areas of Borneo and
Sumatra (Sukanto, 1969). Although the wet and dry
seasons are distinct, a moderate amount of rainfall
occurs during the dry season which results in rainfall
throughout the year. In southeast Sulawesi, a distinct
dry season occurs but wet season rainfall is considerably higher than that of Java due to the in¯uence of the
landmasses and mountains of Borneo. Compared to
the Philippines, Indonesia has a very low incidence of
tropical cyclones.
2. Methods
Soil pits were hand dug to a minimum depth of
1.5 m to expose a vertical face of soil within a rice
paddy and also to expose a vertical face of the
associated bund. The pro®les were described using
terminology proposed by McDonald et al. (1984) with
minor modi®cation by the use of consistence terms
proposed by Soil Survey Staff (1951). This modi®cation was made to facilitate communication with the
professional workers in the two countries. The sites
and pro®le exposures were photographed to provide a
visual record.
Soils were sampled for laboratory analysis by taking bulk samples from the designated horizons. These
samples were analysed by the CSIRO Laboratories
located in Canberra and Adelaide, Australia (Ringrose-Voase et al., 1996). Chemical methods follow the
Australian Laboratory Handbook of Soil and Water
Chemical Methods (Rayment and Higginson, 1992).
Particle size analysis was determined by the sedigraph
method (Hutka and Ashton, 1995) and mineralogy of
the clay fraction was analysed semi-quantitatively by
X-ray diffraction (Raven, 1995).
The soils were classi®ed according to soil taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1994) and The Australian Soil
Classi®cation (Isbell, 1996). Soil survey reports and
local information gained from professional workers
associated with the program were used to identify soils
B.M. Schafer, G. Kirchhof / Soil & Tillage Research 56 (2000) 15±35
classi®ed at the series level and to assist in the other
classi®cation systems.
3. Soil descriptions
3.1. Benchmark Site 1, San Ildefonso
Location
Classification
Topography
Parent material
Drainage
Land use
the Philippines, Luzon Island, Bulacan Province, San Ildefonso (see
Fig. 1), Barangay Buenasita, Central Soil and Water Resources
Research Station
soil series: Mahipon series; soil
taxonomy: Ustic Epiaquert and
Australian Classification: Endocalcareous, Mottled, Epipedal and
Aquic Vertosol
gently sloping (38) to undulating
relief; site component, slightly
dissected lower piedmont footslope
fringing a closed depression
colluvium derived from sandstone,
shale and limestone
surface: well drained and internal:
impeded and slowly permeable
rice-based cropping
Pro®le morphology
Ap1, (mixed, puddled) 0±13 cm, dark yellowish
brown (10 YR 4/4), dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2
moist), very dark grey (10 YR 4/1), dark brown (7.5
YR 4/4) (dominant) mixed, gravelly, fine sandy clay;
moderate medium, 5±10 mm, angular blocky; rough
ped fabric; dry extremely hard, moist firm, wet sticky
and plastic. Common fine roots with rusty mottling
on walls of very fine macropores (root channels).
25±30%, 1±4 mm, sub-rounded, cemented ferromanganiferous nodules. Occasional 7 cm diameter
sub-rounded pebbles of dolerite. Field pH 6.0.
Clear discontinuous wavy with tongued pockets of
gravelly fine sandy clay to: A12, 13±27 cm, light
brownish grey (10 YR 6/2 moist) with dark grey
(10 YR 3/1), dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2) many
medium distinct mottles; gravelly fine sandy clay;
moderate, 5±10 mm, angular blocky; rough ped
fabric; dry extremely hard, moist firm, wet sticky
17
and plastic. Few very fine macropores. 5±10% soft to
hard ferro-manganiferous nodules. Occasional subangular quartz and feldspar crystals. Field pH 6.0.
Discontinuous wavy to: B21, (Mn) 27±67 cm, light
olive grey (5 Y 6/2 moist) with many, medium
distinct brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6 moist)
mottles; gravelly medium clay; strong, 20±
50 mm, lenticular with intersecting slickensides
parting to 10±50 mm, angular blocky and 2±5 mm
lenticular; smooth ped fabric; dry hard, moist firm,
wet sticky and plastic. Occasional 2±5 mm diameter quartz gravels with translucent iron coatings.
Common very fine pores and roots. Field pH 6.5.
Gradual wavy to: B22, (Ca) 67±97 cm, light olive
grey (5 Y 6/2 moist) with many medium distinct
brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6) mottles; medium
clay; strong, 20±50 mm lenticular with intersecting (30±608) slickensides parting to 10±50 mm
angular blocky and 2±5 mm lenticular; smooth ped
fabric; dry hard, moist firm, wet, very sticky and
plastic. Field pH 8.0. 5%, sub-rounded, soft CaCO3
nodules. Occasional black manganese nodules.
Gradual wavy to: B23, 97±140 cm, light olive grey
(5 Y 6/2 moist) medium clay; strong, 2±5 mm
lenticular with slickensides on compound ped
surfaces; smooth ped fabric; moist friable, wet
sticky and very plastic. Occasional black subrounded manganese nodules. Field pH 8.0.
Clear to: C, 140±150 cm (continuing), weathered
shale.
3.2. Benchmark Site 2, Manaoag
Location
Classification
Topography
Parent material
Drainage
Land use
the Philippines, Luzon Island, Pangasinan Province, Manaoag (see
Fig. 2), Barangay Calmay and
farmers field
soil series: San Manuel silty clay
loam; soil taxonomy: Typic Ustropept and Australian Classification:
Haplic, Eutrophic, Grey and Dermosol
backslope (
The soil and climate characterisation of benchmark sites for
lowland rice-based cropping systems research in
the Philippines and Indonesia
B.M. Schafera, G. Kirchhof b,*
a
b
School of Agriculture and Horticulture, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld 4343, Australia
School of Land and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia
Abstract
Soil morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical properties are described at ®ve locations in major rice (Oryza
sativa L.) growing areas of the Philippines (two sites) and in Indonesia (three sites) which were selected for lowland rice-based
cropping systems research. The data were used to classify the soils into the local soil series, soil taxonomy and The Australian
Soil Classi®cation systems. These data were intended to facilitate transfer of knowledge of improved farming systems
technology to other lowland rice growing areas in the regions. The soils were classi®ed as Andsisols, Inceptisols and Vertisols,
and were characterised by clay contents ranging from 370 to 870 g kgÿ1 and cation exchange values ranging between 17 and
68 cmol (p) kgÿ1 for whole soil. pH values were neutral to mildly alkaline. Land surface and root zone attributes were
qualitatively evaluated for limitations to post-rice crop production by interpretation of modi®ed surface and sub-soil properties
associated with rice production. Leakiness of bunds was also examined and mainly attributed to biological activity and for the
development of drainage channels. Climatic data are presented for each of the ®ve sites and the characteristics for potential
rainfall incidence are given for the post-rice dry season crop period. The soil sites selected have a range of properties which
are deemed to represent large areas of soils used for rice production in these two countries. # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Rice soils; Pedology; Soil properties; Climate
1. Introduction
Soils used for lowland rice-based cropping systems
in Indonesia and the Philippines are characterised by
high surface clay content and the fact that they are
puddled to aid water retention during the inundation
period of the rice crop cycle. Following a rice crop, the
potential to use sub-surface soil water for upland crop
*
Corresponding author. Present address: NSW Agriculture, PMB
944, Tamworth NSW 2340, Australia. Tel.: 61-2-67-63-1147;
fax: 61-2-67-63-1222.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Kirchhof).
production entails amelioration of the adverse effects
of puddling on surface soils. For successful crop
establishment the rainfall incidence following rice
is critical. Consequently soil±climate constraints are
a major consideration at the early stage of the dry
season crop cycle and seed bed preparation together
with timing of the establishment phase is critical
(Rahmianna et al., 1996).
Two sites in the Philippines and three sites in
Indonesia were selected as benchmark sites for an
international collaborative project to investigate
soil management strategies to increase yields of dry
season crops following rice. Components of these
0167-1987/00/$ ± see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 1 9 8 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 1 2 0 - 3
16
B.M. Schafer, G. Kirchhof / Soil & Tillage Research 56 (2000) 15±35
management strategies include various soil tillage
practices, application of mulch and amendments
and agronomic practices.
Comparison across the ®ve sites requires detailed
characterisation of soil properties using standard
description terminology and analytical methods for
classi®cation, according to soil taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 1994). Characterisation is also required to facilitate transfer of research outcomes to other rice
growing regions in terms of the combined effects
of soil±climate attributes and tillage treatments on
potential crop establishment, growth and yield of
dry season crops. This paper provides detailed
descriptions of the soils and climate at the ®ve experimental sites. This should avoid the use of incomplete
soil and climate descriptions in the following papers
from the project.
In the Philippines the soils of the Bulacan Province
have been described, mapped and classi®ed in detail
(Soil Survey Division, 1987). Soil description and
analytical characteristics were provided for soil near
the site at Manaoag in the Pangasinan Province.
However the data were not correlated with soils in
the region and terminology used was insuf®cient for
classi®cation.
The soils of East Java have been variously described
and classi®ed at the regional level but limited data
were available for the selected experimental sites. In
South Sulawesi, the soils of the Maros Agricultural
Research Station have been described (Ali and Sawijo,
1982) although the experimental site was outside of
the area surveyed.
The climate in the Philippines is governed by
northeast and southwest monsoon air streams. The
northwest monsoon originates in the cold Asiatic
winter anticyclone and produces a distinct dry season
from around October to May. The southwest monsoon
originates as an Indian Ocean anticyclone during the
southern hemisphere winter. It usually commences
in early May, reaches its maximum in¯uence in
August and abates in October. Monsoonal rains can
occur as early as April and May and persist until
November.
The Philippines is located in a region which is
recognised as having the greatest frequency of tropical
cyclones (typhoons) in the world (Flores and Balagot,
1969). They produce rainfall between May and
December with a mean monthly frequency of greater
than 0.5 throughout the year, but generally less than
1.0 between January and May.
The climate in Indonesia is dominated by monsoonal air streams which are at opposite times of the year
to those in the Philippines. Rainfall in Java is largely
affected by the position of the intertropical convergence zone which passes through twice annually. It is
in¯uenced by the mountainous areas of Borneo and
Sumatra (Sukanto, 1969). Although the wet and dry
seasons are distinct, a moderate amount of rainfall
occurs during the dry season which results in rainfall
throughout the year. In southeast Sulawesi, a distinct
dry season occurs but wet season rainfall is considerably higher than that of Java due to the in¯uence of the
landmasses and mountains of Borneo. Compared to
the Philippines, Indonesia has a very low incidence of
tropical cyclones.
2. Methods
Soil pits were hand dug to a minimum depth of
1.5 m to expose a vertical face of soil within a rice
paddy and also to expose a vertical face of the
associated bund. The pro®les were described using
terminology proposed by McDonald et al. (1984) with
minor modi®cation by the use of consistence terms
proposed by Soil Survey Staff (1951). This modi®cation was made to facilitate communication with the
professional workers in the two countries. The sites
and pro®le exposures were photographed to provide a
visual record.
Soils were sampled for laboratory analysis by taking bulk samples from the designated horizons. These
samples were analysed by the CSIRO Laboratories
located in Canberra and Adelaide, Australia (Ringrose-Voase et al., 1996). Chemical methods follow the
Australian Laboratory Handbook of Soil and Water
Chemical Methods (Rayment and Higginson, 1992).
Particle size analysis was determined by the sedigraph
method (Hutka and Ashton, 1995) and mineralogy of
the clay fraction was analysed semi-quantitatively by
X-ray diffraction (Raven, 1995).
The soils were classi®ed according to soil taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1994) and The Australian Soil
Classi®cation (Isbell, 1996). Soil survey reports and
local information gained from professional workers
associated with the program were used to identify soils
B.M. Schafer, G. Kirchhof / Soil & Tillage Research 56 (2000) 15±35
classi®ed at the series level and to assist in the other
classi®cation systems.
3. Soil descriptions
3.1. Benchmark Site 1, San Ildefonso
Location
Classification
Topography
Parent material
Drainage
Land use
the Philippines, Luzon Island, Bulacan Province, San Ildefonso (see
Fig. 1), Barangay Buenasita, Central Soil and Water Resources
Research Station
soil series: Mahipon series; soil
taxonomy: Ustic Epiaquert and
Australian Classification: Endocalcareous, Mottled, Epipedal and
Aquic Vertosol
gently sloping (38) to undulating
relief; site component, slightly
dissected lower piedmont footslope
fringing a closed depression
colluvium derived from sandstone,
shale and limestone
surface: well drained and internal:
impeded and slowly permeable
rice-based cropping
Pro®le morphology
Ap1, (mixed, puddled) 0±13 cm, dark yellowish
brown (10 YR 4/4), dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2
moist), very dark grey (10 YR 4/1), dark brown (7.5
YR 4/4) (dominant) mixed, gravelly, fine sandy clay;
moderate medium, 5±10 mm, angular blocky; rough
ped fabric; dry extremely hard, moist firm, wet sticky
and plastic. Common fine roots with rusty mottling
on walls of very fine macropores (root channels).
25±30%, 1±4 mm, sub-rounded, cemented ferromanganiferous nodules. Occasional 7 cm diameter
sub-rounded pebbles of dolerite. Field pH 6.0.
Clear discontinuous wavy with tongued pockets of
gravelly fine sandy clay to: A12, 13±27 cm, light
brownish grey (10 YR 6/2 moist) with dark grey
(10 YR 3/1), dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2) many
medium distinct mottles; gravelly fine sandy clay;
moderate, 5±10 mm, angular blocky; rough ped
fabric; dry extremely hard, moist firm, wet sticky
17
and plastic. Few very fine macropores. 5±10% soft to
hard ferro-manganiferous nodules. Occasional subangular quartz and feldspar crystals. Field pH 6.0.
Discontinuous wavy to: B21, (Mn) 27±67 cm, light
olive grey (5 Y 6/2 moist) with many, medium
distinct brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6 moist)
mottles; gravelly medium clay; strong, 20±
50 mm, lenticular with intersecting slickensides
parting to 10±50 mm, angular blocky and 2±5 mm
lenticular; smooth ped fabric; dry hard, moist firm,
wet sticky and plastic. Occasional 2±5 mm diameter quartz gravels with translucent iron coatings.
Common very fine pores and roots. Field pH 6.5.
Gradual wavy to: B22, (Ca) 67±97 cm, light olive
grey (5 Y 6/2 moist) with many medium distinct
brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6) mottles; medium
clay; strong, 20±50 mm lenticular with intersecting (30±608) slickensides parting to 10±50 mm
angular blocky and 2±5 mm lenticular; smooth ped
fabric; dry hard, moist firm, wet, very sticky and
plastic. Field pH 8.0. 5%, sub-rounded, soft CaCO3
nodules. Occasional black manganese nodules.
Gradual wavy to: B23, 97±140 cm, light olive grey
(5 Y 6/2 moist) medium clay; strong, 2±5 mm
lenticular with slickensides on compound ped
surfaces; smooth ped fabric; moist friable, wet
sticky and very plastic. Occasional black subrounded manganese nodules. Field pH 8.0.
Clear to: C, 140±150 cm (continuing), weathered
shale.
3.2. Benchmark Site 2, Manaoag
Location
Classification
Topography
Parent material
Drainage
Land use
the Philippines, Luzon Island, Pangasinan Province, Manaoag (see
Fig. 2), Barangay Calmay and
farmers field
soil series: San Manuel silty clay
loam; soil taxonomy: Typic Ustropept and Australian Classification:
Haplic, Eutrophic, Grey and Dermosol
backslope (