Introduction - Vernacular Transformation, Architecture, Place and Tradition.

vernacular transformations

Architecture, Place and Tradition

vernacular transformations

Architecture, Place and Tradition

Edited by

:

Gusti Ayu Made Suartika

Publisher: Pustaka Larasan in conjunction with Udayana University's Masters Program in: ● Planning and Development for Urban & Rural Areas ●

● Conservation of the Built Environment ● ● Ethnic Architecture ●

contents

Contents Figures

Preface Page

Introduction

Page

Chapters

1 Vernacular Transformations: Context, Issues, Debates

Alexander Cuthbert

2 The Modern Indian Bungalow: Vernacular Antecedents

Jon Lang

3 Vernacular Architecture of the Philippines and its Transformations

Corazon Alejo Hila

4 Chinese Vernacular Architectural Forms and Principles

Liu Yu, Liu Jinghua, Chen Xin, Huang Jie

5 The Way Back to Identity in Traditional Vietnamese Architecture

Nguyen Truc Anh, Ta Hoang

6 Mosque Architecture in Malaysia: From Vernacular to Ornamental

Nila Keumala, Rosniza Othman, Ahmad Yahaya

7 Bosnian Islamic Architectural Heritage, Modernism and Socialism

Dijana Alić

8 Rumah Asuh, Jokowi and Vernacular Architecture in Indonesia

Gunawan Tjahjono

9 Lost in Translation: Balinese Vernacular Open Space

Gusti Ayu Made Suartika

10 Principles and Concepts of Balinese Traditional Architecture and Cultural Values

Anastasia Sulistywati

11 Filtering System in Japanese Vernacular Architecture and its Applications Today

Yumi Kori, Kayo Kinase

12 Native American Architecture

figures

CHAPTER 1

1. l’Abbé Laugier’s example of the primitive hut 2. A contemporary example of the genre from Bali

3. Mopti Africa – Do vernacular buildings add up to Vernacular Urbanism? Can a city be vernacular?

4. The New Classicism. Richmond Riverside, London. Quinlan Terry 1988. Can vernacular ‘copies’ be made and still be vernacular? 5. Bali 2012. This is not a home. Does vernacular also include

non-domestic structures? If so which typologies are to be included? 6. The Ruhr Valley in Germany, where the distinction between urban

and rural has all but collapsed

7. Charles Moore. Piazza D’Italia, New Orleans, to celebrate the local Italian community

8. Sienna Cathedral with its striated stonework - one of the referents used in the design

9. Roman capitals

10. Charles Moore’s translation of capitals 11. Daly City San Francisco

12. Workers housing at Londonderry, Ireland

13. Workers housing at Kahun for the pyramid of El Lahun for Senusret 2nd. Circa 1895 BC

14. Classic Hellenic planning in Asia Minor by Hippodamus of Miletus 15. Print of vernacular housing during the industrial revolution, around

1850

16. Housing at Port Sunlight, a model village for workers

17. Workers housing at the experimental village of Saltaire in Yorkshire, England

18. Workers housing at the Gorbals in Glasgow, Scotland, 1964 by Sir Basil Spence

19. Frank Lloyd Wright - Usonian House

20. Le Corbusier- Worker’s Housing at Pessac 1924-1925 (Domino Houses)

21. Le Corbusier- Unité d’Habitation - Worker’s Housing at Marseilles, France. (1947-1952)

22. Paraportiani church on Mykonos. Greek vernacular architecture of the Cycladic Islands

23. Thira, a small town on the volcano of Santorini facing the Caldera 24. Le Corbusier’s Chapel at Ronchamp, France, showing the influence of

Cycladic vernacular architecture 25. Culross, Scotland

26. Castle Frazer 27. Comlongon Castle 28. Glasgow Hill House 29. Glasgow School of Art 30. Dacca

31. Rob Krier. Belvedere House at Seaside Florida 32. A Gazebo by Quinlan Terry

33. Figure vernacular housing Egypt

34. Hassan Fathy’s transformation of the vernacular. Egypt

35. Gentrification in New York. Greenwich Village stables and carriage houses

36. Colony houses in Edinburgh built in 1860 for artisans and skilled working class

37. Parthenon ‘copy’ Nashville 38. Tudor House 16th Century 39. Tudor housing Shanghai 40. Bungalow USA

41. Bungalow: Malaysia 42. Bungalow Cochin, India 43. Cubic Houses. Holland 44. Yamashita Kyoto 45 Dancing House, Prague 46. Ndebele House

47. Malian Village 48. Balinese Courtyard

49. Balinese Courtyard House 50. Family Shrine

51. Scale and measurement 52. Traditional Balinese House 53. Appeal to Aboriginal animism 54. Batak Boat Houses, Sumatra 55. Fali cosmology

56. Frank Gehry

57. Frank Gehry, fish pavilion 58. Collie dog house USA

CHAPTER 2

1. Antecedents of the bungalow a. The English Cottage b. The indigenous Bengali hut 2. Nineteenth century bungalows

a. An early bungalow, Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh b. A late nineteenth century, Bengaluru 3. Twentieth century bungalows

a. A utilitarian modern bungalow, Kolkata ca 1920 b. A late twentieth century bungalow

4. A typical homestead of the Lower Gangetic Delta, West Bengal 5. An ainemane in Kodagu, Coorg, Karnataka

6. The havelis of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) a. HaveliKhazanchi in 1910

b. A nautch in the bahirmahal of a house with the women watching from a balcony connected to the andarmahal

7. George Atkinson’s bungalow at Waterloo Airport in Sierra Leone, 1941

8. Details of an aquatint by H. Merkle published by George Orme in 1805

9. Typical rustic Anglo-Indian Bungalows a.Mesra, Ranchi

b. Jaipur in the late nineteenth century

10. Architecture as understood by the Public Works Departments according to John Lockwood Kipling

11. Two generic site layouts

12. Two Anglo-Indian bungalows in their setting, Bengaluru 13. Plans of typical middle-class Anglo-Indian bungalows

a. A simple bungalow plan Bengaluru

b. 23/24 Waterloo Street (now NawabSiraj-ud-DaulahSarani) 14. Verandahs of Indian inhabited bungalows today

a. The verandah of a bungalow in Allahabad b. The verandah of a bungalow in Bengaluru

15. Buildings and porches as an indicator of socio-economic status a. A bungalow, Varanasi Cantonment,c.1880s

b. A house in Bengaluru built in 1933

16. Images of nineteenth century colonial life in India a. The central room of an Anglo-Indian bungalow b. Punka and punkawalla with a ayah in thebackground

17. An example of Iyer’s proposals for what Indian bungalows should be like

18. Khar, Mumbai

a.The layout of the suburb b. A Typical site plan

c.Lalit Kunj, ground floor plan and elevation 19. Suburban bungalows in Mumbai, Maharashtra

a. Bishop House, Bandra (1880 b. VittalBhavan, Bandra, 1926 20. Architect designed bungalows

a. Sen House, Kolkata b. Gawara House, Nasik

21. Three examples of the Modern Indian Vernacular bungalows a. Ahmedabad

b. Kochi (formerly Cochin) c. Salt Lake City, Kolkata

22. Emerald Hills, Aluva, Kochi, Kerala a. Site layout

b. Entrance gate with houses beyond

23. Two early twenty-first century houses marketed as bungalows 24. The Pathak Farms, near Delhi

a. A general view Courtesy of Ram Rahman

b. Plans, Shraddha House (Courtesy of RomiKhosla) 25. The bungalow today?

a. A surviving bungalow and Mittal Tower, Mahatma Gandhi Road, Bengaluru, in 1996

b. ‘Bungalows in the sky’. Naimesh Park, Ahmedabad, 1984; Yashwant Singh, architect

CHAPTER 3

1. The Philiphines

2. Early shelter, the portable lean-to 3. Bahaykubo and its ventilation 4. The precipitous mountain terrain 5. The Ifugaofale

6. Ifugao house section 7. The rat guard or halipan 8. The Bontocfay-u 9. The Sagada innagamang 10. Kalinga Binayon or Finaryon 11. Maranao Tarogan

12. Panolong

13. The okir motif in the panolong 14. Samal houses on stilts

15. The bahaynabato, or ancestral houses of the mestizo class and wealthy principles. Bahaynabato, Vigan, Ilocos Sur

16. Calaguas house

18. National Arts Center, Philippine High School for the Arts, Makiling, Laguna Designed by Leandro Locsin

19. Tahanang Filipino (Coconut Palace) Designed by Francisco Mañosa

CHAPTER 4

1. The layout of a typical courtyard house with 9 bays and 4 depth 2 . The Tailiang structure

2. The Chuandou Structure 4. The Jinggan structure

5. Earth-wood structure dwelling of Naxi Nationality 6. Brick-wood structure Siheyuan of Han Nationality 7. Bamboo-wood structure Diaojaolou - Li Nationality 8. Bamboo-wood structure Zhulou of Dai Nationality 9. Stone-earth-wood structure - Tibet

10. Tulou in Fujian Province 11. Yaodong in Shaanxi Province 12. The yurt of Mongolian Nationality 13. The black tent of Zang Nationality

14. The white & colorful tents- Zang Nationality 15. Distribution map of Chinese vernacular buildings 16. Dwellings of the Korean Nationality

17. Dwellings of the Man Nationality 18. Mongolian yurt

19. Wang Manor in Hebei Province 20. Beijing Siheyuan 1

21. Beijing Siheyuan 2

22. The dwellings in Shanxi Province 23. The dwellings in Shandong Province 1 24. The dwellings in Shandong Province 2 25 Huizhou style dwellings

26. The dwellings in Jiangsu Province 27 The dwellings in Zhejiang Province 28. The dwellings in Hubei Province 29. The dwellings in Hunan Province 30. The Tianjing (patio) style

31. The dwellings in Guizhou Province 32. Tu Lou

33. The dwellings in Guangdong Province 34. The Zhuang vernacular dwellings 35. The dwellings in Hong Kong 36. The dwellings in Macao 37. The dwellings in Taiwan

39. Shanghai “Li Nong”

40. Guanzhong narrow courtyard 41. The section of Yaodong

42. Qinmuchuan traditional dwellings 43. The dwellings of the Hui Nationality 44. Aayiwang dwellings

45. An indoor view of Aayiwang dwelling 46. The dwellings in Qinghai Province 47. The dwellings in Gansu Province 48. The watchtower dwellings 49. The dwellings in Linzi

50. The dwellings in Sichuan Province 51. Diaojiaolou dwellings

52. “One square seal” dwelling 53. “Si he wu tianjin” type 54. “San fang yi zhaobi” type 55. Zhulou dwellings

56. A perspective view of Siheyuan 57. A perspective view of JuEr Hutong 58. A perspective view of Tu Lou 59. Wufeng Tu Lou

60. Rectangular Tu Lou 61. Round Tu Lou

62. A Plan of round Tu Lou

63. Exterior appearance of the Tu Lou Community 64. Perspective of the Tu Lou Community

65. Plan and sections of the Zunrang Hall, a typical Tianjing style dwelling

66. A cliffside Yaodong 67. A free-standing Yaodong 68. A sunken Yaodong 69. Interior view of Yaodong

70. The cuniculus as the natural air-conditioner system

71. The picture of the new style cave dwelling in Zaoyuan Village, Yan’an City

CHAPTER 5

1. Model the stilt-house on a bronze drum 2. Soil house model (Nam Dinh museum) 3. Bao Thien Tower (Ha Noi)

4. Binh Son tower (Phu Tho)

5. Stone column in Dam pagoda (Bac Ninh)

7. One pillar pagoda (Hà Nội)

8. Tay Dung communal house (Ha Noi) 9. Chu Quyen communal house (Ha Noi) 10. Keo pagoda (Nam Dinh)

11. Prototypical architecture of the communal house 12. Kim Lien Pagoda (Hà Nội)

13. Bell tower in Keo pagoda (Thai Binh)

14. “Chong ruong gia chieng” wooden structure (in the Northern Region) 15. Chong ruong gia thu” wooden structure (in the Central Region) 16. “Co diem”roof in Minh Mang tomb (Hue)

17. Decoration carved with terracotta on the façade and “co diem” 18. Gothic style: Hanoi Cathedral

19. French classical style: The Hanoi Opera House

20. French vernacular style: Villa on Phan Dinh Phung Street – Ha Noi 21. French modern style: State Bank of Vietnam – Ha Noi

21. Long Bien bridge (1902)

22. Crossroad No 6 at August Revolution Square

23. Hai Phong in 1930. aerial view (ảnh tư liệu BelleIndochine) 24. Da Nang City

25. Notre Dame Cathedral in Sai Gon 26. Sai Gon planning in 1883

27. Ben Thanh Market 28. Da Lat City

29. Villa 28 Chuoi, Digital's first novel Ta My Duat, 1939 30. Villa 65 Ly Thuong Kiet (Ha Noi)

31. Villa 115 Hang Bac (Ha Noi) 32. Villa 215 Hang Bac (Ha Noi

33. Villa 27 Nguyen Dinh Chieu (Ha Noi).

CHAPTER 6

1. Location of the 23 chosen mosques 2. The Prophet’s mosque after Creswel 3. The Prophet’s mosque diagram 4. Three tiered roof form construction

5. Traditional and vernacular mosques: analysis of floor plans 6. Traditional and vernacular mosques: Mihrab ornamentations 7. Jamek Mosque design by A.B. Hubback built in Kuala Lumpur

in1909

8. Kapitan Keling Mosque design H.A. Neubronner by built in 1916 in Penang

9. Masjid Sultan Abu Bakar in Johor: Qibla Wall 10. National Mosque of Malaysia, 1965

12. National Mosque of Malaysia: Qibla Wall

13. National Mosque of Malaysia: ornamentations on Mihrab 14. The transformation of Mosque Architecture in Malaysia 15. Direct axis lay out floor plan

16. Non direct axis floor plan 17. Type C model floor plan

CHAPTER 7

1. Contemporary view of the exterior of the covered marketplace of Brusa Bezistan

2. Čaršija with its surroundings at the end of 19th century 3. Contemporary view of Vijećnica

4. Contemporary view of Baščaršija Square with sebilj 3. Division of precinct based on crafts

4. Division of precinct based on crafts

5. ‘Store beside store, handicraft beside handicraft’ 6. Baščaršija as a production line

7. Monuments and significant structures of the old precinct 8. Beg’s Mosque, cross-section and axonometric

9. Lighting in Beg’s mosque

10. ‘Mihrab, pulpit, carpet’, abstracting the space 11. Neidhardt’s proposal for temporary shelters, 1945 12. Embryonic development of an old house in Sarajevo 13. Furnishings and utensils of a traditional house

14. Neidhardt’s drawing of Svrzo’s house; layout and cross section

15. Inner courtyard and a room in Svrzo’s house (Svrzina kuća), opened to the public in 1953

16. Abdesthana and banjica space in Svrzo’s house

17. ‘Modernity of the traditional house’s interior’, Đerzelez house

18. Modernity of the traditional home: cross-ventilation and an interior of a mutvak (women’s kitchen) of the Djerdjeles family house

19. The city, Čaršija, mahala, house, 24 sketches

20. Neidhardt’s ‘Up-to-date architectonic dictionary alphabet of the carpet-town

21. Neidhardt’s illustration of a traditional interior

CHAPTER 8

1. The original sketch of Rumah Tenun Tirta Dharma 2. The built Rumah Tenun Tirta Dharma

3. The cone shaped house of Wae Rebo before the roof/wall cover 4. The sugar palm fiber rope

5. North Nias house

7. General appearance of a Sumbanese house. 8. The fire place inside a Sumbanese house 9. The fire place inside a Sumbanese house 10. The bamboo roof frame

11. The final rite; climbing up the ridge

CHAPTER 9

1. Merdeka Square, Jakarta

2. Tianemen Square, Beijing (People Republic of China) 3. Puputan Badung Park

4. Puputan Margarana Park, located right in front of Bali's Provincial Office

5. Puputan Margarana Park

6. Paddy Fields in Bali governed by Subak associations 7. Catus Patha formation

8. Catur Muka Statue of Puputan Denpasar Catus Patha, next to Lapangan Puputan Denpasar

9. Activities accommodated in a park

10. Alun-alun situated next to the Great Palace of the Karangasem Monarchy

11. Banyan Tree at the Alun-Alun in Gianyar

12. Bencingah that has been developed into housing complex at Bedulu Village of Gianyar Regency

13. Bencingah of Pejeng Village that has been developed into a commercial area

14. Alun-Alun Pekambingan, which has now been converted into a shopping complex.

15. Cultural elements: practices and values 16. Alun-Alun as an egalitarian space

17. A cleansing ceremony held at the centre of a Catus Patha, next to an Alun-Alun

18. Alun-Alun and Its ecological functions

19. Alun-Alun as a place for food hawkers and place to launch commercial goods.

20. Development control mechanism

CHAPTER 10

1. Unity and harmony in life

2. The macrocosmic-microcosmic conception 3. Manik Ring Cacupu Concept

4. Catur Purusha Artha Concept 5. Tat Twam Asi Concept 6. Tri Loka Concept

8. Dewata Nawa Sanga Concept 9. Rwa Bhineda Concept 10. Ulu Teben Concept 11. Tri Mandala Concept 12. Sanga Mandala Concept 13. Swastikasana Concept 14. Natah Concept 15. Tri Angga Concept 16. Ornament

17. Ijuk for roofing 18. Clarity of structure 19. Sikut (measurement) 1 20. Sikut (measurement) 2 21. Gegulak

22. Size of a building 23. Building height 24. Building sequence 25. Offering

26. Tri Pramana Concept 27. Wewaran (padewasan) 28. Housing compound 29. Umah meten/bale daja 30. Paon

31. Bale sumanggen 32. Bale dangin 33. Bale dauh/bale loji 34. Granary

35. Pemesuan

CHAPTER 11

1. Typical filtering devices in nokishita zone 2. Facade of typical Nouka (Kanagawa) 3. Typical Nouka plan

4. Typical Nouka section

5. Typical filterin devices in Engawa zone

6. SOTOEN veranda and UNCHIEN (inner veranda) 7. UCHIEN (1+2)

8. SATOEN IV (1+3) 9. SATOEN V (1+5) 10. UCHIEN ii (1+5)

11. Typical filtering devices in NOKISHITA zone 12. Machiya townscape

14. Typical Machiya in Kyoto

15. ENGAWA zone of Machiya in Kyoto 16. Shieto before renovation

17. Transformation of NOKISHITA zone in Swara (shopfront) 18. NOKISHITA zone type

19. Shieto after the renovation

20. View from cafe to the street through recreated NOKISHITA zone 21. Shieto after the renovation

22. NOKISHITA zone was dissappeared before restoration 23. Inside of NOKISHITA zone

24. Model plan of bio house F 25. Winter daytime

26. Winter night time 27. Summer daytime 28. Summer night time 29. Facade of bio house F 30. View of F's

31. View from dining to F's living in bio house F

CHAPTER 12

1. Red Panther, Cheyenne Indian warrior (Grinnell) 2. Apache Wikiup (Curtis)

3. Algonquian Indian Wigwam (Curtis) 4. Oglala Indian Teepee (Grabhill) 5. Inuit Tupik (Library and Archives Canada) 6. Pima Indian Ki (Firstpeople.us)

7. Navajo Indian Hogan (Crow Canyon Archaeological Center) 8. Mandan Indian Pit House (About Native Americans)

9. Aleut Barabara. (Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve) 10. Interior of a Barabara. (Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve) 11. Inuit Village of Igloos (Frobisher)

12. Iroquois Longhouse (Gadacz)

13. Traditional Pueblo Indian Architecture (National Geographic) 14. Mesa Verde (Benson)

15. Chaco Canyon Ruins of a Great House Complex (Haeffner) 16. Interior of a Pueblo Indian Kiva (Oachs)

17. Native American Burial Mound in Missouri (Graham) 18. Serpent Mound (Fazio, Moffett, and Wodehouse) 19. Poverty Point (Gibson)

20. Cahokia Mounds (Cahokia Mounds Museum Society) 21. Cahokia Mounds (National Geographic)

tables

CHAPTER 6

1. List of the 23 chosen mosques 2. Mihrab visibility and saf formation

contributors

CHAPTER 1

Alexander Cuthbert is Emeritus Professor of Planning and Urban Development at at the

University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. He was educated in Scotland with degrees in Architecture, Planning and Urban Design, and a Doctorate from London School of Economics and Political Science. His main interest has been in urban design, with teaching and practice in Greece, Britain, the United States, Hong Kong and Australia. Professor Cuthbert has over 100 published works. He was winner of the prestigious Australia Award for Urban Design in 2006. He has recently spent nine years developing a Unified Field Theory of Urban Design, published in three volumes: Designing Cities, (Blackwells 2003); The Form of Cities (Blackwells 2006), Understanding Cities (Routledge 2011), and one complete issue of Urban Design International (2007(12):177-223).

CHAPTER 2

Jon Lang is Emeritus Professor of Architecture at the University of New South Wales in

Sydney, Australia. He taught urban design at the University of Pennsylvania from 1970 to 1990. He has been a visiting professor at universities in India, Korea, Puerto Rico, Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela as well as the United States. Jon is the author of a number of books on urban design, the relationship between people and the built environment, and on modern architecture in India. His latest book is Urban Design: a Typology of Procedures and Products. He has been a juror on a number of international urban design competitions. He is also Director for Urban Design of ERG (Environmental Research Group), Inc. in Philadelphia.

CHAPTER 3

Ma.Corazon Alejo-Hila is currently Associate Professor at the University of the Philippines’

College of Fine Arts, where she served as Chair of the Department of Art Theory and Art History from 1998-2001, 2006-2008, and again in 2009-2010. She has lectured and written extensively on the subject of architecture in the Philippines, especially vernacular architecture; Philippine textiles and weaving traditions; Philippine contemporary art; and Southeast Asian art and architecture. She was the Ignacio Villamor Professorial Chair Holder for Art History in 1997, 1999, and 2001.

CHAPTER 4

Liu Yu, is Professor of Architecture at the School of Mechanics, Civil Engineering and

Architecture, director of the Sustainable Building and Environmental Research Institute (SBERI), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), China. She completed undergraduate and postgraduate degree studies in architecture program at Tianjin University and Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology respectively, and obtained her PhD degree at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) in Australia. In the last 10 years, she has published over 80 research papers in academic journals and conferences, one research book in English, three edited books (including two textbooks) in Chinese.

Liu Jinghua, associate professor of architecture at the School of Mechanics, Civil Engineering

and Architecture, Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), China. She completed undergraduate and postgraduate degree studies in the architecture program at NPU and Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology (XAUAT) respectively, and is now a PhD Candidate of XAUAT. Her research field is ecological architectural design and Chinese vernacular architecture.

Chen Xin, lecturer of architecture at the School of Mechanics, Civil Engineering and

Architecture, Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), China. She graduated from Nagoya Institute of Technology (Japan) and obtained PhD degree. She has published more than 10 research papers in important academic journals of China and Japan. In 2006, she received the Third Prize of Excellent Natural Science Paper Award by Shaanxi Province. In 2010 she received the Tokai Prize for research thesis from the Architectural Institute of Japan.

Huang Jie, master student in the Architecture Design and Principle program at the School of

Mechanics, Civil Engineering and Architecture, Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU). His research is focuses on the green building design and theory. During his undergraduate and postgraduate study period, he won a number of scholarships in NPU and prizes in different architectural competitions.

CHAPTER 5

Nguyen Truc Anh was educated in Vietnam, Australia and Tokyo with degrees in Architecture

( B.arch, HAU, Vietnam, 1998), Urban Development and Design ( MUDD, UNSW, Australia, 2001), Urban Engineering ( ME, UT, Japan 2004) and a doctorate from University of Tokyo (2007). He has recently published Urban Design (Construction Publisher 2007); and Design & Planning for Urban Underground Space (Construction Publisher 2011). He is working in Standing Office – Steering Committee Construction Planning and Investment of Hanoi Capital Region as Deputy Director and the Chief Planner for Hanoi Construction Master Planing Vision from 2030 vision to 2050. He teaches at Hanoi Architectural University.

Ta Hoang Van received her doctorate degree in Hanoi National University in the field of

Vietnamese architectural history and conservation. She has participated on over 20 research projects at all levels - national, ministry and city levels related to conservation and history. She received the historian award of Pham That Duat and the second prize doctorate thesis (2007, Vietnamese Historian Association). She has recently worked on important projects such as Hoang Thanh-Thang Long, Hanoi - Coloa Citadel Heritage and Conservation Project, and Bai Tu Long Bay Conservation. Her recent books are: Nam Dinh Maps ( 2003), Traditional Vietnamese Architecture (2007), and Historical Heritage, - a New Approach (2011).

CHAPTER 6

Puan Sri Datin Sri Nila Inangda Manyam Keumala is a Research Consultant in the Department of Architecture, Faculty of the Built Environment in University of Malaya. She leads the Research Center for Urban Study, Conservation and Tropical Architecture. Her research projects and programs cover architecture of the Muslim world, building performance, POE, sustainable design, vernacular architecture, passive design, energy conservation, and conservation of timber buildings.

Yahaya Bin Ahmad is an Associate Professor in the Department of Architecture, Faculty of the

Built Environment University of Malaya. He obtained his Bachelor of Architecture, Master of Architecture and Master in Construction Management from Washington University, St Louis USA. He was appointed as the Head, Department of Architecture and the deputy Dean of the Faculty of the Built Environment, University Malaya. His research encompasses the area of Vernacular Architecture and Conservation.

Rosniza Othman is a Lecturer at the Department of Architecture and Environmental Design,

Centre for Foundation Studies, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). She obtained her B.A Architecture and Post Graduate Diploma (Hons) from Greenwich University, London in 1994 and 1996. She then completed her Masters degree in Environmental Science from University Putra of Malaysia (UPM). In 2011, she received her Doctorate from the Faculty of the Built Environment, University of Malaya. Her research looks at Vernacular Islamic Architecture in Malaysia and Southeast Asia.

CHAPTER 7

Dijana Alić holds a Senior Lecturer position in the Faculty of the Built Environment,

University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. Her research interest focuses on the relationship between modernity and national expression in architecture, particularly in the context of (post-World War 2) 'Eastern' Europe. Dijana has published in significant international journals such as the Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (JSAH), Open House International and Centropa.

CHAPTER 8

Gunawan Tjahjono is a reappointed Professor of Architecture at Universitas Indonesia. He is

the Rector at Universitas Pembangunan Jaya. He holds a Ph.D. in Architecture from the University of California at Berkeley. He designed the Main Administration Building of Universitas Indonesia at the Depok Campus, Jakarta (Indonesia). He served as Volume editor of Indonesian Heritage Architecture, and Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia, Jilid Arsitektur. His research interest is on social and cultural factors in architecture and urban design.

CHAPTER 9

Gusti Ayu Made Suartika is a senior lecturer at the Department of Architecture, Udayana University Bali. Her Masters and Doctoral Degrees are from UNSW Sydney. She is Director of Udayana University’s Masters Programs in Planning and Development for Urban & rural Areas; Conservation of the Built Environment; and Masters Program in Ethnic Architecture. Her research focuses on planning and development for developing countries, an interest reflected in her publications. Her last book is Morphing Bali: The State, Planning and Culture (2010).

CHAPTER 10

Anastasia Sulistyawati is professor of architecture in the Engineering Faculty of Udayana University. Her works which resulted from research in architecture which have been published are, among others: Sekala-Niskala Kulkul and the Architecture of Bale Kulkul (2010), The Vocabulary of Balinese Traditional Architecture (2001). She has received the following presentations and awards and from the President of the Republic of Indonesia, including the Tanda Kehormatan: Satyalencana Karya Satya 30 Tahun (recognition of honour for academic pursuits over the last 30 years).

CHAPTER 11

Yumi Kori is the Principal Architect of Studio MYU Architects. She graduated with M.S.

Arch. from Columbia University in 1995, then worked as an adjunct professor at Barnard and Columbia College, 1996 to 2005. She is the recipient of many prestigious awards, including the ar+d award by the Architectural Review, London; the Modern Living Award; the Osaka Cityscape award; Chiba Architectural Cultural Award; and the Tokyo Architectural Award.

Kayo Kinase is the project architect of Studio MYU Architects. She graduated with M. Arch.,

from Kyoto Prefectural University in 2000. Her research is on the modifications to Japanese local houses during the modern period, and has been active in the field of architectural conservation.

CHAPTER 12

Lyle Culver is an Associate Professor Senior at Miami Dade College, School of Architecture

and Interior Design where he has taught for the past 10 years and is the recipient of the Dr. Robert H. McCabe Endowed Teaching Chair in 2010. He was subsequently nominated and awarded the National Institute for Staff and Organizational Development (NISOD) Award for Excellence in Teaching in 2011. His Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) is from Florida International University (Miami).

PREFACE

This book originates in Bali, a culture which has one of the most complex vernacular traditions of any local people. Being Balinese myself and trained as an architect, I seldom questioned the idea that vernacular architecture on the island was anything more than a physical symbol of our traditions and beliefs. Returning to my society after seven years in Australia, I brought with me the idea that if cultures do not adapt and move forward, they stagnate and may disappear entirely. It seemed to me that this was true of Balinese culture as a whole. Its vernacular tradition had to accommodate the idea that globalisation was real and affected all cultures discriminately. So I made the decision to assemble a text that addressed vernacular architecture in the context of transformation, and to concentrate on the region in which I live, namely Southeast Asia. The result is a book that accommodates complex and original articles from Japan to India, covering a vast range of ideas, territories and belief systems. Each chapter focuses on the idea of transformation, where the concept of history is implicit. Here we explore some fundamental questions - how do we accommodate the past into the future? What adaptations are necessary for the survival of local cultures? What are the implications of local vernaculars for today’s architects?

1

INTRODUCTION

Gusti Ayu Made Suartika

This book had its origins in a seminar on vernacular architecture held under the auspices of the Masters Program in Ethnic Architecture, Department of Architecture at Udayana University in Bali. Since the topic had aroused much debate, I decided to edit a book about vernacular architecture to include some of the seminar papers, but to extend the compass of the seminar to include as many contributions from the Asian region as possible. So the twelve chapters in the book now offer an intriguing account of the sheer variety of cultures, conceptual systems, building forms, construction techniques and materials used across the entire region. Reflecting the origins of this text in Bali, we have two papers that provide a comprehensive and in-depth coverage of the complexity of Balinese vernacular, its roots, traditions, techniques and practices, as well as a critique of the problems currently faced by traditional Balinese architecture and urbanism.

Vernacular architecture seems at first sight to be an easy topic to debate. But once the term is shredded for meaning, many questions arise that have no easy answers. For example we have the perennial problem of the vexed relationship between architecture and building. What is the difference between these two processes? When does a building become a piece of architecture? At the outset we are already involved in defining what architecture is or is not. The same idea applies to the term vernacular. Should we talk of vernacular architecture or vernacular building? What qualities are necessary to define a structure as vernacular? This type of questioning can also be extended into typologies, in other words are their specific typologies of space and form that qualify the vernacular, in opposition to other building structures.

While vernacular derives from the Latin word vernaculus meaning domestic or native, the Oxford Dictionary derives its first meaning in relation to the language or dialect of specific regions, the patois of ordinary people. Vernacular architecture has the same cast to it – it is local, domestic, ordinary, non-monumental and built using local materials and traditions. However, even these constraints leave certain questions unanswered. If this was all there was to know about vernacular architecture, life would be somewhat simpler. But the question of history

2

is not addressed here, and we also have the thorny problem of whether vernacular architecture implies a fixed historical typology (the trulli of Southern Italy for example), or a similarly impacted relationship to a particular set of cultural norms and practices. We also must ask whether or not vernacular architecture is being built today. Can it be built in commodity producing society, or in essence, must it emanate from a vernacular environment, one that by definition is unspoiled but also unsophisticated? In other words, to what extent is the term vernacular contained in the synchronic or diachronic dimensions of history, or in social class and other structures?

While we clearly cannot answer all these questions in a single book, I have tried to retain the dual concepts of evolution and transformation as a guide, viewing the vernacular not as static, but ephemeral and transitory; as a process that is not frozen in time and place. This implies that the somewhat artificial urban/rural divide is not useful when it comes to defining the vernacular, or indeed in which typology of settlements we should most fruitfully explore for vernacular building. In the following chapters a great many opinions are expressed, and it is clear that there is a huge range of opinion in the minds of contributors as to how vernacular architecture is constituted, and how it contributes to architectural theory in general.

In Chapter One, Alexander Cuthbert provides a general, theoretical and encompassing approach to the entire field of vernacular architecture and suggests a system for analysis. This constitutes a new and original tool that will greatly assist in our penetration of the many convoluted questions encompassed by the term vernacular. There is a wealth of material contained in the chapter and few stones are left unturned in a critical overview of the subject. The focus is on transformation – how does the vernacular evolve, how can we analyse its adaptations, by which methods can this be done, and with what outcomes? The range of subject matter is both broad and deep, engaging realist philosophy, historical typologies and periods, and the advent of modernity and postmodernity in analysis. The search for examples to reinforce a new synthesis covers most continents in its attempt to access the generic root of the idea and its rhyzomatic appearances, while accepting the fact that a single encompassing solution to the problem is not feasible. Here the ancient and the modern are combined discriminately, theories are challenged and fixed ideas cast aside.

Chapter Two is written by Jon Lang, an international scholar of great repute, whose books on urban design are modern day classics. This chapter bears on the problem of the vernacular in a very interesting manner, since it demonstrates that the Atoms of Environmental Structure so named by Christopher Alexander are significant to the larger picture of urbanism and urban form. The chapter convincingly illustrates the morphing of the Bengali word 'Bangla' meaning ‘of Bengal’ into the term bungalow, and its transformation over roughly two centuries into the modern houses we see today in Delhi, Ahmadabad and other contemporary Indian cities. Its origins in India offer a fascinating account not only of a vernacular typology, but of the ideologies that made this possible. Arguably the bungalow has had a greater influence on the development of contemporary cities than any other urban form, acting as the prototype for much suburban development worldwide. This typology spread across the entire planet, influencing contemporary development indiscriminately in an amazing array of forms and possibilities, influencing urban development on several continents – as far afield as London, New York, Johannesburg and Kuala Lumpur.

3

In Chapter Three we move from India to the Philippines to discover how vernacular building in that country has evolved, and how it has affected the architecture of modernity. Like many other contributors to this volume, Corazon Hila has grown up in a post- colonial environment, and the idea of vernacular in this context has an unavoidable link to colonisation, its strategies and assumptions about local conditions, and what it considered to be ‘good’ architecture. She points out that Philippino culture is an amalgam of Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Indian, Chinese, Japanese and other foreign influences, all of which have impacted on today’s architecture over the archipelago. In addition, given the profusion of local cultures and geographies in an island nation, the typological variation from region to region is explored. Hilum argues that it is this immense variety of indigenous building that is providing the foundation for the national architecture of tomorrow.

In Chapter Four with Liu Yu we move from the Philippines to China to discover the forms and principles behind the evolutionary development of vernacular dwellings, from cave houses to the classic courtyard house, to the tents of the Zang people, to the high-rise forms of the Tu Lou Community. The chapter is courageous in its coverage of a vast country with its great variety of ethnic groups, climates and sub-cultures. In all, 37 provinces are detailed as to the manner in which climate and materials have affected building forms, each with generic illustrations of building typologies. From this encyclopaedic coverage, examples are distilled that demonstrate the evolution of specific vernacular forms into new architecture. The most classic of these is probably the Hutong courtyard house, retrofitted to contemporary life but retaining the spirit of yesterday. Several other examples are given of such developments in contemporary Chinese architecture.

Chapter Five deals with another post-colonial society, namely Vietnam. Here Nguyen Truc Anh and Ta Hoang Van identify the path from Chinese domination (2nd century to the tenth century BC) through the Ly-Tranh Dynasties, and forward to French Colonisation and beyond into the period of liberation. The chapter locates vernacular architecture in the context of the growth and development of Vietnam’s major cities, and details the specific exigencies and particularities of each period, with the cross fertilisation of one period into another. The influence of both Chinese and French colonialism are investigated and illustrated in significant detail. Here there seems to be a clear division on the one hand of Chinese influence on the historical record, predominantly in temples and domestic architecture. On the other, the impact of the French has been felt most powerfully in the transition to modernity, in the organisation of cities, in the architecture of institutions and the domestic architecture for the wealthy. Interestingly, the French influence has not been resisted by the authors, and indeed has been welcomed as having had a positive influence on urbanisation as a whole.

Chapter Six by Keumala, Rozniz and Yahaya investigates a single typology, that of the mosque in the progression from vernacular to monumental architecture in Malaysia. This is done in significant depth, with a list of 23 different mosques built from 1728 until 2005. These buildings are located in different zones across the country, and the evolution of floor plans, decorative features and structural integrity are all examined. As in Vietnam and other post-colonial societies, local architecture did not emerge unscathed from the ideology of colonial government, and it is fascinating to see how indigenous design has been influenced by Western architectural traditions. Once again, post colonial society had to grapple with serious questions of identity- does the colonial period constitute a relevant part of local history? Should such influences be

4

expunged or developed? The Post -Independence style answers these questions in using the ideas of young Malaysian architects, along with the new construction methods and materials of the third millennium.

While Chapter Seven originates in Australia, and is written about Bosnia, it retains an unlikely but important link to South East Asia and the culture of Islam in Indonesia. It also has a direct relationship to the previous chapter on the Islamic architecture of Mosques. Dijana Alic’s subject is the adaptations from Bosnian Islamic architecture in the creation of a new Yugoslav architecture in Sarajevo’s historic core. The article addresses the vernacular from a significant perspective, namely the integration of two philosophies, that of Islam and socialism and the resolution of built form under these conditions. The paper focuses on the work of two architects, Dusan Grabrijan and Juraj Neidhardt, whose job it was to synthesise the collective identity of Yugoslavia post world war two. Here a delicate balance had to be struck between the cleansing of religious values and replacing them with secular values in the interests of a socialist state. In this context two typologies are discussed – the vernacular of the mosque and the vernacular of dwelling, with a concluding commentary on the universal and the particular in the Bosnian Oriental house.

Chapter Eight addresses the totality of vernacular architecture in Indonesia. Gunawan Tjahjono argues that despite the apparent drop in vernacular building in the villages, that there is evidence of a revival in traditional building in the form of Rumah Asuh, an agency established to promote and assist vernacular architecture. Nonetheless, the chapter focuses on an emergent conflict between the state and the Indonesian Institute of Architects (I.I.A.). Bapak Jokowi, former Head of the Solo Regency had such remarkable success in his provision of social programs that he was promoted to being the Governor of Jakarta. In his desire to promote traditional architectural practices, he has implied that if this does not happen voluntarily, that it might have to be enforced through the building code. The disagreement with the I.I.A. is whether or not this is the correct way to create character in the city. Tjahyono points out that village architecture differs vastly from that of the metropolis, and while the vernacular should provide lessons for all, it is inescapable that we must act globally and think locally.

Chapter Nine is the first of two chapters that investigate vernacular architecture in Bali. Paradoxically, Ayu Suartika ignores the idea of building and instead concentrates on the concept of social space and the public realm as having equal significance to the buildings and traditions that define it. The point is well made that society is not constituted in a mere agglomeration of buildings, but equally in the spaces of daily life. One cannot be considered without the other in any significant manner. To this end, Suartika takes a single space, that of the alun-alun (public square), and connects it to the ritual practices and traditions of the Balinese. While it is fair to say that all public squares share certain features in common, the unique qualities that pervade Balinese life clearly infuse the alun–alun and its relationship to the dominant institution, the Royal Palace. However, Suartika extends her analysis beyond the local, and offers a critique of the role of the state and development practices. She demonstrates how these activities are counterproductive to both culture and economy, undermining a world famous ethnic culture while potentially damaging 70% of all national revenues from tourism that are dependent on its survival.

5

Chapter Ten is a unique document by Anastasia Sulistyawati. The chapter presented here is a careful English translation of a short text that is currently in press with our publishers, but written in Bahasa Indonesia. It constitutes an annotated dictionary of the practical and conceptual framework necessary to a basic understanding of Balinese architecture. Beginning with an analysis of the symbolic and ritual practices that constitute Balinese cosmology and society, the norms, principles and concepts that support and infuse traditional building are carefully explained in detail, encompassed by the omnipresent Hindu religion, one that has been significantly transformed from its origins in India many centuries ago. In greater detail, the use of colours, local materials, systems of measurement, location and other features are all interlinked. In addition, the function of each building in the traditional Balinese courtyard house is clearly explained. The chapter provides a comprehensive and fascinating account of a luminous ethnic culture and its architecture with a brief overview of the place of Balinese architecture and its future on an island that is imperilled in several dimensions, with suggestions as to defensive measures that will ensure the future of Balinese vernacular in the informational age.

Chapter Eleven by Kore and Kinase expounds on the virtues of Japanese vernacular in relation to housing. As in Balinese architecture, Japanese architecture has highly ritualised features and has undergone refinement over many centuries. First the basic principles are noted, the most important being the establishment of a system of filtering people and the elements in order to create security, privacy and physical comfort within a specific and necessary boundary zone. It is the deliberate use and consciousness of these filtering devices that gives traditional Japanese architecture its beautiful transparent quality and flexible use of space. The authors then illustrate the significance of these principles to contemporary Japanese architecture.

Chapter Twelve by Lyle Culver is a paper that was presented at the original seminar at Udayana University on Native American architecture, and has been retained until the last chapter to conclude the text and to act as a foil for what has preceded it. While it does not fit neatly into the overall Asian focus of the current book nonetheless it constitutes a fascinating account of America’s original inhabitants and their response to the environments within which their culture matured. The chapter addresses a people who migrated from Mongolia across the Bering Strait to America some 25,000 years ago. What is absorbing is the idea that from a single race of people, a plethora of tribal societies evolved, each with its own language, traditions social structures and vernacular architecture. Culver offers a wide range of examples from cliff dwellings to tent structures and igloos, demonstrating the vast range of ingenuity that permeated the architecture of America’s first people.

PREFACE

This book originates in Bali, a culture which has one of the most complex vernacular traditions of any local people. Being Balinese myself and trained as an architect, I seldom questioned the idea that vernacular architecture on the island was anything more than a physical symbol of our traditions and beliefs. Returning to my society after seven years in Australia, I brought with me the idea that if cultures do not adapt and move forward, they stagnate and may disappear entirely. It seemed to me that this was true of Balinese culture as a whole. Its vernacular tradition had to accommodate the idea that globalisation was real and affected all cultures discriminately. So I made the decision to assemble a text that addressed vernacular architecture in the context of transformation, and to concentrate on the region in which I live, namely Southeast Asia. The result is a book that accommodates complex and original articles from Japan to India, covering a vast range of ideas, territories and belief systems. Each chapter focuses on the idea of transformation, where the concept of history is implicit. Here we explore some fundamental questions - how do we accommodate the past into the future? What adaptations are necessary for the survival of local cultures? What are the implications of local

INTRODUCTION

Gusti Ayu Made Suartika

This book had its origins in a seminar on vernacular architecture held under the auspices of the Masters Program in Ethnic Architecture, Department of Architecture at Udayana University in Bali. Since the topic had aroused much debate, I decided to edit a book about vernacular architecture to include some of the seminar papers, but to extend the compass of the seminar to include as many contributions from the Asian region as possible. So the twelve chapters in the book now offer an intriguing account of the sheer variety of cultures, conceptual systems, building forms, construction techniques and materials used across the entire region. Reflecting the origins of this text in Bali, we have two papers that provide a comprehensive and in-depth coverage of the complexity of Balinese vernacular, its roots, traditions, techniques and practices, as well as a critique of the problems currently faced by traditional Balinese architecture and urbanism.

Vernacular architecture seems at first sight to be an easy topic to debate. But once the term is shredded for meaning, many questions arise that have no easy answers. For example we have the perennial problem of the vexed relationship between architecture and building. What is the difference between these two processes? When does a building become a piece of architecture? At the outset we are already involved in defining what architecture is or is not. The same idea applies to the term vernacular. Should we talk of vernacular architecture or vernacular building? What qualities are necessary to define a structure as vernacular? This type of questioning can also be extended into typologies, in other words are their specific typologies of space and form that qualify the vernacular, in opposition to other building structures.

While vernacular derives from the Latin word vernaculus meaning domestic or native, the Oxford Dictionary derives its first meaning in relation to the language or dialect of specific regions, the patois of ordinary people. Vernacular architecture has the same cast to it – it is local, domestic, ordinary, non-monumental and built using local materials and traditions. However, even these constraints leave certain questions unanswered. If this was all there was to know about vernacular architecture, life would be somewhat simpler. But the question of history

is not addressed here, and we also have the thorny problem of whether vernacular architecture implies a fixed historical typology (the trulli of Southern Italy for example), or a similarly impacted relationship to a particular set of cultural norms and practices. We also must ask whether or not vernacular architecture is being built today. Can it be built in commodity producing society, or in essence, must it emanate from a vernacular environment, one that by definition is unspoiled but also unsophisticated? In other words, to what extent is the term vernacular contained in the synchronic or diachronic dimensions of history, or in social class and other structures?

While we clearly cannot answer all these questions in a single book, I have tried to retain the dual concepts of evolution and transformation as a guide, viewing the vernacular not as static, but ephemeral and transitory; as a process that is not frozen in time and place. This implies that the somewhat artificial urban/rural divide is not useful when it comes to defining the vernacular, or indeed in which typology of settlements we should most fruitfully explore for vernacular building. In the following chapters a great many opinions are expressed, and it is clear that there is a huge range of opinion in the minds of contributors as to how vernacular architecture is constituted, and how it contributes to architectural theory in general.

In Chapter One, Alexander Cuthbert provides a general, theoretical and encompassing approach to the entire field of vernacular architecture and suggests a system for analysis. This constitutes a new and original tool that will greatly assist in our penetration of the many convoluted questions encompassed by the term vernacular. There is a wealth of material contained in the chapter and few stones are left unturned in a critical overview of the subject. The focus is on

transformation – how does the vernacular evolve, how can we analyse its adaptations, by which

methods can this be done, and with what outcomes? The range of subject matter is both broad and deep, engaging realist philosophy, historical typologies and periods, and the advent of modernity and postmodernity in analysis. The search for examples to reinforce a new synthesis covers most continents in its attempt to access the generic root of the idea and its rhyzomatic appearances, while accepting the fact that a single encompassing solution to the problem is not feasible. Here the ancient and the modern are combined discriminately, theories are challenged and fixed ideas cast aside.

Chapter Two is written by Jon Lang, an international scholar of great repute, whose books on urban design are modern day classics. This chapter bears on the problem of the vernacular in a very interesting manner, since it demonstrates that the Atoms of Environmental Structure so named by Christopher Alexander are significant to the larger picture of urbanism and urban form. The chapter convincingly illustrates the morphing of the Bengali word 'Bangla' meaning

‘of Bengal’ into the term bungalow, and its transformation over roughly two centuries into the modern houses we see today in Delhi, Ahmadabad and other contemporary Indian cities. Its origins in India offer a fascinating account not only of a vernacular typology, but of the ideologies that made this possible. Arguably the bungalow has had a greater influence on the development of contemporary cities than any other urban form, acting as the prototype for much suburban development worldwide. This typology spread across the entire planet, influencing contemporary development indiscriminately in an amazing array of forms and possibilities,

influencing urban development on several continents – as far afield as London, New York,

In Chapter Three we move from India to the Philippines to discover how vernacular building in that country has evolved, and how it has affected the architecture of modernity. Like many other contributors to this volume, Corazon Hila has grown up in a post- colonial environment, and the idea of vernacular in this context has an unavoidable link to colonisation, its strategies and

assumptions about local conditions, and what it considered to be ‘good’ architecture. She points

out that Philippino culture is an amalgam of Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Indian, Chinese, Japanese and

other foreign influences, all of which have impacted on today’s architecture over the

archipelago. In addition, given the profusion of local cultures and geographies in an island nation, the typological variation from region to region is explored. Hilum argues that it is this immense variety of indigenous building that is providing the foundation for the national architecture of tomorrow.

In Chapter Four with Liu Yu we move from the Philippines to China to discover the forms and principles behind the evolutionary development of vernacular dwellings, from cave houses to the classic courtyard house, to the tents of the Zang people, to the high-rise forms of the Tu Lou Community. The chapter is courageous in its coverage of a vast country with its great variety of ethnic groups, climates and sub-cultures. In all, 37 provinces are detailed as to the manner in which climate and materials have affected building forms, each with generic illustrations of building typologies. From this encyclopaedic coverage, examples are distilled that demonstrate the evolution of specific vernacular forms into new architecture. The most classic of these is probably the Hutong courtyard house, retrofitted to contemporary life but retaining the spirit of yesterday. Several other examples are given of such developments in contemporary Chinese architecture.

Chapter Five deals with another post-colonial society, namely Vietnam. Here Nguyen Truc Anh and Ta Hoang Van identify the path from Chinese domination (2nd century to the tenth century BC) through the Ly-Tranh Dynasties, and forward to French Colonisation and beyond into the period of liberation. The chapter locates vernacular architecture in the context of the growth and

development of Vietnam’s major cities, and details the specific exigencies and particularities of

each period, with the cross fertilisation of one period into another. The influence of both Chinese and French colonialism are investigated and illustrated in significant detail. Here there seems to be a clear division on the one hand of Chinese influence on the historical record, predominantly in temples and domestic architecture. On the other, the impact of the French has been felt most powerfully in the transition to modernity, in the organisation of cities, in the architecture of institutions and the domestic architecture for the wealthy. Interestingly, the French influence has not been resisted by the authors, and indeed has been welcomed as having had a positive influence on urbanisation as a whole.

Chapter Six by Keumala, Rozniz and Yahaya investigates a single typology, that of the mosque in the progression from vernacular to monumental architecture in Malaysia. This is done in significant depth, with a list of 23 different mosques built from 1728 until 2005. These buildings are located in different zones across the country, and the evolution of floor plans, decorative features and structural integrity are all examined. As in Vietnam and other post-colonial societies, local architecture did not emerge unscathed from the ideology of colonial government, and it is fascinating to see how indigenous design has been influenced by Western architectural traditions. Once again, post colonial society had to grapple with serious questions of identity- does the colonial period constitute a relevant part of local history? Should such influences be

expunged or developed? The Post -Independence style answers these questions in using the ideas of young Malaysian architects, along with the new construction methods and materials of the third millennium.

While Chapter Seven originates in Australia, and is written about Bosnia, it retains an unlikely but important link to South East Asia and the culture of Islam in Indonesia. It also has a direct

relationship to the previous chapter on the Islamic architecture of Mosques. Dijana Alic’s

subject is the adaptations from Bosnian Islamic architecture in the creation of a new Yugoslav

architecture in Sarajevo’s historic core. The article addresses the vernacular from a significant

perspective, namely the integration of two philosophies, that of Islam and socialism and the resolution of built form under these conditions. The paper focuses on the work of two architects, Dusan Grabrijan and Juraj Neidhardt, whose job it was to synthesise the collective identity of Yugoslavia post world war two. Here a delicate balance had to be struck between the cleansing of religious values and replacing them with secular values in the interests of a socialist state. In

this context two typologies are discussed – the vernacular of the mosque and the vernacular of

dwelling, with a concluding commentary on the universal and the particular in the Bosnian Oriental house.

Chapter Eight addresses the totality of vernacular architecture in Indonesia. Gunawan Tjahjono argues that despite the apparent drop in vernacular building in the villages, that there is evidence of a revival in traditional building in the form of Rumah Asuh, an agency established to promote and assist vernacular architecture. Nonetheless, the chapter focuses on an emergent conflict between the state and the Indonesian Institute of Architects (I.I.A.). Bapak Jokowi, former Head of the Solo Regency had such remarkable success in his provision of social programs that he was promoted to being the Governor of Jakarta. In his desire to promote traditional architectural practices, he has implied that if this does not happen voluntarily, that it might have to be enforced through the building code. The disagreement with the I.I.A. is whether or not this is the correct way to create character in the city. Tjahyono points out that village architecture differs vastly from that of the metropolis, and while the vernacular should provide lessons for all, it is inescapable that we must act globally and think locally.

Chapter Nine is the first of two chapters that investigate vernacular architecture in Bali. Paradoxically, Ayu Suartika ignores the idea of building and instead concentrates on the concept of social space and the public realm as having equal significance to the buildings and traditions that define it. The point is well made that society is not constituted in a mere agglomeration of buildings, but equally in the spaces of daily life. One cannot be considered without the other in any significant manner. To this end, Suartika takes a single space, that of the alun-alun (public square), and connects it to the ritual practices and traditions of the Balinese. While it is fair to say that all public squares share certain features in common, the

unique qualities that pervade Balinese life clearly infuse the alun–alun and its relationship to the

dominant institution, the Royal Palace. However, Suartika extends her analysis beyond the local, and offers a critique of the role of the state and development practices. She demonstrates how these activities are counterproductive to both culture and economy, undermining a world famous ethnic culture while potentially damaging 70% of all national revenues from tourism that are dependent on its survival.

Chapter Ten is a unique document by Anastasia Sulistyawati. The chapter presented here is a careful English translation of a short text that is currently in press with our publishers, but written in Bahasa Indonesia. It constitutes an annotated dictionary of the practical and conceptual framework necessary to a basic understanding of Balinese architecture. Beginning with an analysis of the symbolic and ritual practices that constitute Balinese cosmology and society, the norms, principles and concepts that support and infuse traditional building are carefully explained in detail, encompassed by the omnipresent Hindu religion, one that has been significantly transformed from its origins in India many centuries ago. In greater detail, the use of colours, local materials, systems of measurement, location and other features are all interlinked. In addition, the function of each building in the traditional Balinese courtyard house is clearly explained. The chapter provides a comprehensive and fascinating account of a luminous ethnic culture and its architecture with a brief overview of the place of Balinese architecture and its future on an island that is imperilled in several dimensions, with suggestions as to defensive measures that will ensure the future of Balinese vernacular in the informational age.

Chapter Eleven by Kore and Kinase expounds on the virtues of Japanese vernacular in relation to housing. As in Balinese architecture, Japanese architecture has highly ritualised features and has undergone refinement over many centuries. First the basic principles are noted, the most important being the establishment of a system of filtering people and the elements in order to create security, privacy and physical comfort within a specific and necessary boundary zone. It is the deliberate use and consciousness of these filtering devices that gives traditional Japanese architecture its beautiful transparent quality and flexible use of space. The authors then illustrate the significance of these principles to contemporary Japanese architecture.

Chapter Twelve by Lyle Culver is a paper that was presented at the original seminar at Udayana University on Native American architecture, and has been retained until the last chapter to conclude the text and to act as a foil for what has preceded it. While it does not fit neatly into the overall Asian focus of the current book nonetheless it constitutes a fascinating account of

America’s original inhabitants and their response to the environments within which their culture

matured. The chapter addresses a people who migrated from Mongolia across the Bering Strait to America some 25,000 years ago. What is absorbing is the idea that from a single race of people, a plethora of tribal societies evolved, each with its own language, traditions social structures and vernacular architecture. Culver offers a wide range of examples from cliff dwellings to tent structures and igloos, demonstrating the vast range of ingenuity that permeated