An Analysis Of Islamic Liberalism Found In Michael Muhammad Kinght’s Novel :The Taqwacores

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

2.1. Literature

Robert and Jacobs (1993:1) say that literature refers to compositions that tell stories, dramatize situations, express emotions, analyze and advocate ideas. Literature can give the essential meaning to human’s life. It helps us to grow, both personally and intellectually because by studying the literature we enable to recognize human dreams and struggles in the different places and times, it helps us to develop our mature sensibility and compassion for the condition of all things. It also exercises our emotions through interest, concern, tension, excitement, hope, fear, regret, laughter, and sympathy. Through literature, we can also see a lot of different point of views, idea, and culture. In the other words, in a literary work contains many human’s experience which made in the beautiful arrangement of words. Based on that, literature is not only entertaining people but also leads human to learn some new ideas, situation, or emotional expression as their knowledge and unconsciously reflected in daily life.

As general fact, literary works contain various aspects in human life such as culture, social and moral lesson that readers may get and being knowledge from them. In the other words, it may say that literature can make human be more human because it is not rarely that after read a literary work, people could change their point of view upon something.

Roberts and Jacobs (1995:3) distinguish the kinds of literature by stating that literature may be classified into four categories: (1) prose fiction, (2) poetry, (3) drama and (4) nonfiction prose. Usually the first three are classified as an imaginative literature. The genres of imaginative literature have much in common, but they also have their different characteristic. For instance,

the distinguishing characteristics of prose fiction or narrative fiction are depicted by myths, parables, romances, novels and short stories.

Originally, fiction means anything crafted, made up, shaped up but recently ‘fiction’ refers to prose stories based on the author’s imagination. The element of fiction is narration relating or recounting of well order arrangement of events or actions. Works of fictions usually focus on one or a few major characters that undergo a change of attitude of character as they interrelate with other characters and deal with problems. In the other words, fiction, like all imaginative literatures may introduce true historical details but not the real history. Its main purpose is to interest, to stimulate, to instruct and to divert, not to create precise historical records.

Prose fiction, although untrue, could actually happen. Some events, people, and places may even be real. Also, it can be possible that in the future these events could physically happen. Prose fiction appears to the reader to be something that is actually happening.

Wellek and Warren (1997:1) stated, literature can be treated as a document in the history of ideas and philosophy for literary history parallels and reflects intellectual history. So it is clear that if someone wants to know further about the history or the real condition in certain era, it is better to look at the literary works in the period itself because a literary work is a directly reflection of social structure, class struggle and others.

2.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Elements

2.2.1. Intrinsic Element : Characterization

The element of the fiction can be divided into character, plot, structure, and theme. Here, we only focus on the character. In fiction, character is a reasonable facsimile of human being, with all the good and bad traits of human being (Robert and Jacob, 1993:51). The character may be defined as a verbal representation of a human being. It means that character must be the people. The author portrays each of the characters through the action, speech, description, and commentary. Each of characters has the different attitude. Usually, in a story a character must face the major problem that can make the interaction between one character into another. A story cannot be consisting of one character. It must be more than one. So, when we want to the character we should find out the action of the character in a sequence of events.

Characterization is the author’s way of describing his characters in a literary works; or it is the author’s means of differentiating one character to another (Kasim, 2005:21). An author can present his character through two ways, directly or through the action. Directly means the author directly describe the attitude of the character in the novel by writing it clearly, while through the action means that the author describes the attitude of the character by the action that the character does. So the readers can imagine or determine whether the character had a good or bad behavior. For example when the character kills the people it means that the character has the bad behavior.

The character can be judged from four level of the characterization. They are physical, social, psychological, and moral. Physical level is the simplest level of characterization because it contain of external traits only such as sex, age and size. Social level means the factor that place the character in the environment such as economic status, profession, religion, family and social

relationship. Psychological level reveals habitual responses, attitudes, desires, motivation, likes and dislikes, the inner workings of the mind, both emotional and intellectual which lead to action. It is the most essential part of characterization because it leads the character to the conflict. Moral level will show the attitude of the character whether kind or not it can be seen by how the character can face the conflict.

The character can be divided into two types. They are round and flat character. First, round character means that they recognize, change with, or adjust to circumstances (Robert and Jacob, 1993:133). Round character usually called as hero or heroic because they play the major role in the story. Round character is dynamic because they undergo change and growth. His responses take us by surprise. The readers can’t predict how the character will react. Round character also can be divided into protagonist and antagonist. Protagonist is the driver of the action of the story and therefore responsible for achieving the story's Objective Story Goal (the surface journey). Protagonist is usually the main character. Antagonist is the character that stands in opposition to the protagonist. Protagonist usually has the good attitude such as hero or heroic, while the antagonist has the bad attitude. Second, flat character means the characters that do not grow. It is not dynamic but static. Flat character is unchanging, at the end of the novel he is essentially what he has been throughout. His every response is predictable, the readers can anticipate exactly how the character will react. In this thesis, I will analyze the characteristics of islamic liberalism which reflected in characters of Michael Muhammad Knight's novel The Taqwacores, by analyzing their attitude or behavior.

2.2.2. Extrinsic Element : Literature and Sociology

Sociology derives from the Greek ‘Socious’ (society) and ‘logos’ (science) which means the study of all the aspects of human and their relation in community. So it means that the object of the sociology is society. Sociology learns all things that happen in the society such as culture, racial and ethnic inequality even the stratification by social class. As we know in the society consists of many different ethnic groups such as Batakness, Javaness, etc. It is also consist of different social class such as high class, middle class and low class.

So, we can say that the object of sociology is the society. A society is a group of people with a shared and somewhat distinct culture, who live in a defined territory, feel some unity, and see themselves as distinct from other peoples (Riddel, 1944:63). In addition, to survive, all societies need to meet certain basic needs, including substance, distribution, reproduction and communication. The people in the society need to interact one to another.

As Wellek (1963:95), say that literature is expression of society. As we know that society will be different one to another. It will make classification or social stratification in the society. Social stratification means fairly permanent ranking of position in a society in terms of unequal power, prestige, or privileges. Stratification refers to patterned, or structured, social inequalities among whole categories of people, not just individual (Riddel, 1944:183). The classification in the society is naturally arranged by the society itself.

Therefore, there was a new ideology in the society that we often known as "postmodernism". Postmodern is defined as the activity of society has been achieved. And humans are not satisfied with the progress of science and the way of modern thinking. Postmodernism has changed the intellectual paradigm of systems myths, dogmas, and old habits

(orthodox) into a logical system. Postmodernism evokes a new movement and ideology that intersect with religion, especially in Islam, as the term we known as “Islamic Liberalism”.

Postmodernism is closely related to the sociology of literature, sociological approach greatly considered in the era of postmodernism. Basic of philosophical sociological approach is the intrinsic relationship between literature and society. It is a methodological approach to the study of society and history.

2.3. Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a late 20th century movement in the arts, architecture, and criticism that was a departure from modernism. Postmodernism includes skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art, philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. It is often associated with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought.

The term postmodernism has been applied to a host of movements, mainly in art, music, and literature, that reacted against tendencies in modernism, and are typically marked by revival of historical elements and techniques.

The term postmodern was first used around the 1870s by English artist, John Watkins Chapman (Appignanesi and Garrat, 1999: 3; Ritzer, 2003: 36). According to Kohler and Hasan (Featherstone, 2001: 16, 73), the term "postmodernism" emerged back in the 1930s, by Federico de Onis, as a reaction to modernism stagnation, and began to be widely discussed around the 1960s. Another opinion (Stanley J. Grenz, 2001: 25-35) mentions that the pioneers of postmodernism is Arnold Toynbee (1870s), on the basis of Western cultural shift toward irrationality and relativism.

Prof. Dr. Nyoman Kutha Ratna, S.U in his book (2004: 146) state :

“…Meskipun demikian, secara definitif pada dasarnya postmodernisme lahir 15 Juli 1972, pk. 3.32 sore, di St. Louis, Missouri, dengan ‘dihancurkannya’ bangunan perumahan Pruitt-Igoe. Menurut Charles Jencks, bangunan tersebut merupakan simbol modernisme sebab dibangun atas dasar teknologi modern dengan tujuan menciptakan masyarakat utopis…”

However, postmodernism has produced various inventions for mankind. Postmodernism has changed the intellectual paradigm of systems myths, dogmas, and old habits (orthodox) into a logical system. The emergence of postmodernism is clearly a result of the inability of modernism to overcome people's satisfaction; that is the various requirements which relating to social issues, politics, economics, and culture in general.

In the postmodern era, where prosperity and leisure time are increased, the components that play a role is the consumer. System information such as mass media, advertising, marketing, television, video, internet, popular literature, and so becomes very important. In other words, consumerism is the latest development of postmodernism, the reader is considered as a fundamental component in the development of theory literature contemporary.

Thus, postmodernism appears to correct the linearity of modernism. The goal is obviously to restore the awareness that there is 'the other'. As we know theoretically, Western is considered as universal and superior. The consequence is the Western as if insisting that the Eastern should adjust to the Western. In this context the concept of cultural relativism of postmodernism suggests that the symptoms of which have been considered taboo can be reconsidered. The motto that is often used is ‘think globally, act locally’, the universe has been replaced by the multiverse (Nyoman Kutha Ratna, 2004: 153).

The main characteristics of postmodern theory (Linda Hutcheon, 1992: 60) is the rejection of the existence of the center, absoluteness, big narratives, metanarrative, motion monolinear history. Postmodernism rejects a single-minded (homology), such as race, religion, the differences between men and women and so on, by offering a system of plural-minded (paralogy). Postmodernism subverts uniformity, homogeneity, and totalization, by giving the intensity of the differences, relativity, and pluralism. Postmodernism recognizes the other's identity, as cultural relativism. Therefore, a method that is considered appropriate is qualitative, because the goal is not objectivity, but the basics of different thinking.

2.4. Islamic Liberalism

The term ‘Liberal Islam’ was firstly popularized by Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee, a Muslim intellectual from India in the 1950s. Although the liberal tradition in Islam is traced back to leaders and writers in the 19th century, like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Sayyid Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Abduh, who emphasized the idea of freedom from taqlid (tradition) and the ‘expansion of the right to practice ijtihad’, these ideas were popularized in Indonesia by Nurcholish Madjid in 1970s. The term ‘Liberal Islam’ became more prominent in Indonesia since the publication of two books: Islamic Liberalism: a Critique of Development Ideologies, written by Leonard Binder, and Liberal Islam: a Source Book, edited by Charles Kurzman. Then the term was picked up by young Indonesian Muslims who called their group Jaringan Islam Liberal (JIL) or the Liberal Islamic Network.

Liberal Islam was established in Jakarta in 1999, and it was initiated by a group of Jakarta-based intellectuals led by young Muslim scholars such as Ulil Abshar Abdalla, Luthfi Assyaukanie, Saeful Mujani and Ahmad Sahal. In March 2002, they established the Jaringan

Islam Liberal or Liberal Islamic Network to disseminate their views through the media. They established an active website and a moderated chat group on the Internet, where they debate issues, respond to questions and views, cite the Quran to support their arguments and even provoke debates with their critics. The website quickly expanded. Media syndication was established. Columns and articles discussing Islamic teachings began to appear outside Muslim-related publications. A wide-circulation newspaper group, Jawa Pos, which also has regional newspapers, sets aside regular space for activists of the Network.

The name ‘Liberal Islam’ illustrates their fundamental principles; Islam which emphasizes “private liberties” and “liberation” of the socio-political structure from unhealthy and oppressing domination. The “liberal” adjective here has two meanings: “liberty” (being liberal) and “liberating”. This group does not believe, as others argue, that it is possible to conceive of Islam without such accompanying adjectives. In fact, Islam has been interpreted in so many different ways in accordance with the interpreter’s need, just as is the case with many other religions as well. The founders of this group chose a genre of interpretation, ‘liberal’ Islam, to define their movement.

Adian Husaini and Nuim Hidayat (2002: 3) gave their opinion about Islam Liberal, that is, the Islamic group that does not agree with the enforcement of Shariah law (formally by the state), the industrious group who fight for secularization, emancipation of women, theological pluralism, and Western democracies.

According to Radwan Masmoudi ( The Silenced Majority, Journal of Democracy, April

2003 : ),

Islam. Liberal Muslims believe that human beings are created free, a concept that is very important to highlight in the Muslim world today and that if you take away or diminish freedom you are in fact contradicting human nature as well as divine will. While some people want to impose their views on others, liberal Muslims insist men and women must be free to choose how to practice their faith.

In Kurzman’s opinion (1999: 2), Liberal Islam has enjoyed a renewed popularity since the 1970s, expressing itself in ‘a more self-confident liberalism that apologizes neither for its liberalism nor for its Islamic essence’. In spite of opposition from within the Muslim community, the movement has grounds for optimism in ‘the rising level of education in the Muslim world’ and the emergence of ‘an organizational infrastructure for liberal Islam’ which represent 'the first real effort since the late nineteenth century to generate an international scholarly movement of liberal Islam’.

In line with Radwan’s and Kurzman’s arguments on Liberal Islam, JIL

Liberalism :

1. Open to all forms of intellectual exploration on all dimensions of Islam.

Liberal Muslims believe that Islam susceptible to critical thinking on itself is a chief principle that should be adhered to in order to keep Islam relevant from time to time. Closing the door of interpretations of Islam, partly or wholly, is a threat on Islam itself, because by being so Islam will rot. Liberal Muslims believe critical thinking can be done from many points of view, particularly ones that relate to social interaction, rituals, and theologies.

2. Prioritizing religio-ethics, not literal textual readings..

Liberal Muslims believe literal-textual readings of the Quran and Sunnah will only cripple Islam. On the contrary, an interpretation that is more religio-ethics will allow Islam to flourish creatively and be part of the global civilization that champion universal humanity.

3. Believing that truth is relative, open for interpretations and plural.

Liberal Muslims believe the idea of truth (in the interpretation of religion) is relative, on the grounds that human interpretations of it are made under certain circumstances or contexts; it is also open in the sense that the interpretations could be wrong or right; it is plural in the sense that one way or another it reflects the needs of the interpreters which change depending on time and space.

4. Standing behind the minorities and the oppressed. (the minorities of religious, ethnic, racial, gender, culture, politics, and economics).

Liberal Muslims hold that a liberal interpretation of Islam is one which sides with the oppressed minorities and those who are marginalized. Liberal Muslims hold that it is against Islam to persecute those who differ in religious beliefs or in opinions.

5. Believing in the freedom to practice religious beliefs.

Liberal Muslims hold that it is the freedom of human beings whether or not to believe in religions must be protected. There should not be any persecution against whomsoever

based on his or her opinions or religions. Belief in God which is personal nature cannot be forced because it is a choice that develops based on truth received by someone.

6. Separation of world and heavenly authorities, religious and political authorities

Liberal Muslims believe the authorities of the religions and the politics must be separated. Liberal Muslims oppose the idea of theocracy. Religions are sources of inspirations that could influence public policy making, but they should not become holy prerogatives that grant the freedom to steer those policies. Religion should be of the private domain, whereas public affairs should be administered through consensual process.

Liberal Islam believes that ijtihad (the rational thinking of Islamic texts) is the main tenet that enables Islam to hold out through any season. Any locking of the gates of ijtihad, partially or even entirely, is a threat to Islam itself and would be considered to degrade Islam. Liberal Islam believes that ijtihad could be held almost in every aspect, within ilahiyyat (theology), ubudiyyat (ritual), or (especially) muamalat (social interaction). Ijtihad, as developed by JIL, is an endeavour of Islam’s interpretation based on the ethical-religious spirit of the Qur’an and the Sunnah, not merely an interpretation of Islam based on the literal meaning of the text. The literal kind of interpretation would only “degenerate” Islam. It is argued that only by using such an ethical-religious spirit based interpretation, will Islam live and grow creatively in association with the universal “humanistic civilization”.

Liberal Islam is based on the notion of “truth” (in religious interpretation) as relative, open and plural. Relative, since an interpretation is “human activity” which is shackled in a certain context; open, since each form of interpretation contains an erroneous possibility, instead

of a correct one; and plural, since each religious interpretation, in one way or other, is a reflection of any interpreter’s need in a climate of incessant change of time and place.

Liberal Islam is now well known as the ideology who promotes pluralism, civil liberties, women’s equality, openness of ijtihad’s gate and separation between religious and political authority. Liberal Islam considers that religion is private and that individual rights be protected.

The main characteristics of postmodern theory (Linda Hutcheon, 1992: 60) is the rejection of the existence of the center, absoluteness, big narratives, metanarrative, motion monolinear history. Postmodernism rejects a single-minded (homology), such as race, religion, the differences between men and women and so on, by offering a system of plural-minded (paralogy). Postmodernism subverts uniformity, homogeneity, and totalization, by giving the intensity of the differences, relativity, and pluralism. Postmodernism recognizes the other's identity, as cultural relativism. Therefore, a method that is considered appropriate is qualitative, because the goal is not objectivity, but the basics of different thinking.

2.4. Islamic Liberalism

The term ‘Liberal Islam’ was firstly popularized by Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee, a Muslim intellectual from India in the 1950s. Although the liberal tradition in Islam is traced back to leaders and writers in the 19th century, like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Sayyid Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Abduh, who emphasized the idea of freedom from taqlid (tradition) and the ‘expansion of the right to practice ijtihad’, these ideas were popularized in Indonesia by Nurcholish Madjid in 1970s. The term ‘Liberal Islam’ became more prominent in Indonesia since the publication of two books: Islamic Liberalism: a Critique of Development Ideologies, written by Leonard Binder, and Liberal Islam: a Source Book, edited by Charles Kurzman. Then the term was picked up by young Indonesian Muslims who called their group Jaringan Islam Liberal (JIL) or the Liberal Islamic Network.

Liberal Islam was established in Jakarta in 1999, and it was initiated by a group of Jakarta-based intellectuals led by young Muslim scholars such as Ulil Abshar Abdalla, Luthfi Assyaukanie, Saeful Mujani and Ahmad Sahal. In March 2002, they established the Jaringan

Islam Liberal or Liberal Islamic Network to disseminate their views through the media. They established an active website and a moderated chat group on the Internet, where they debate issues, respond to questions and views, cite the Quran to support their arguments and even provoke debates with their critics. The website quickly expanded. Media syndication was established. Columns and articles discussing Islamic teachings began to appear outside Muslim-related publications. A wide-circulation newspaper group, Jawa Pos, which also has regional newspapers, sets aside regular space for activists of the Network.

The name ‘Liberal Islam’ illustrates their fundamental principles; Islam which emphasizes “private liberties” and “liberation” of the socio-political structure from unhealthy and oppressing domination. The “liberal” adjective here has two meanings: “liberty” (being liberal) and “liberating”. This group does not believe, as others argue, that it is possible to conceive of Islam without such accompanying adjectives. In fact, Islam has been interpreted in so many different ways in accordance with the interpreter’s need, just as is the case with many other religions as well. The founders of this group chose a genre of interpretation, ‘liberal’ Islam, to define their movement.

Adian Husaini and Nuim Hidayat (2002: 3) gave their opinion about Islam Liberal, that is, the Islamic group that does not agree with the enforcement of Shariah law (formally by the state), the industrious group who fight for secularization, emancipation of women, theological pluralism, and Western democracies.

According to Radwan Masmoudi ( The Silenced Majority, Journal of Democracy, April

2003 : ),

Islam. Liberal Muslims believe that human beings are created free, a concept that is very important to highlight in the Muslim world today and that if you take away or diminish freedom you are in fact contradicting human nature as well as divine will. While some people want to impose their views on others, liberal Muslims insist men and women must be free to choose how to practice their faith.

In Kurzman’s opinion (1999: 2), Liberal Islam has enjoyed a renewed popularity since the 1970s, expressing itself in ‘a more self-confident liberalism that apologizes neither for its liberalism nor for its Islamic essence’. In spite of opposition from within the Muslim community, the movement has grounds for optimism in ‘the rising level of education in the Muslim world’ and the emergence of ‘an organizational infrastructure for liberal Islam’ which represent 'the first real effort since the late nineteenth century to generate an international scholarly movement of liberal Islam’.

In line with Radwan’s and Kurzman’s arguments on Liberal Islam, JIL Liberalism :

1. Open to all forms of intellectual exploration on all dimensions of Islam.

Liberal Muslims believe that Islam susceptible to critical thinking on itself is a chief principle that should be adhered to in order to keep Islam relevant from time to time. Closing the door of interpretations of Islam, partly or wholly, is a threat on Islam itself, because by being so Islam will rot. Liberal Muslims believe critical thinking can be done from many points of view, particularly ones that relate to social interaction, rituals, and theologies.

2. Prioritizing religio-ethics, not literal textual readings..

Liberal Muslims believe literal-textual readings of the Quran and Sunnah will only cripple Islam. On the contrary, an interpretation that is more religio-ethics will allow Islam to flourish creatively and be part of the global civilization that champion universal humanity.

3. Believing that truth is relative, open for interpretations and plural.

Liberal Muslims believe the idea of truth (in the interpretation of religion) is relative, on the grounds that human interpretations of it are made under certain circumstances or contexts; it is also open in the sense that the interpretations could be wrong or right; it is plural in the sense that one way or another it reflects the needs of the interpreters which change depending on time and space.

4. Standing behind the minorities and the oppressed. (the minorities of religious, ethnic, racial, gender, culture, politics, and economics).

Liberal Muslims hold that a liberal interpretation of Islam is one which sides with the oppressed minorities and those who are marginalized. Liberal Muslims hold that it is against Islam to persecute those who differ in religious beliefs or in opinions.

5. Believing in the freedom to practice religious beliefs.

Liberal Muslims hold that it is the freedom of human beings whether or not to believe in religions must be protected. There should not be any persecution against whomsoever

based on his or her opinions or religions. Belief in God which is personal nature cannot be forced because it is a choice that develops based on truth received by someone.

6. Separation of world and heavenly authorities, religious and political authorities

Liberal Muslims believe the authorities of the religions and the politics must be separated. Liberal Muslims oppose the idea of theocracy. Religions are sources of inspirations that could influence public policy making, but they should not become holy prerogatives that grant the freedom to steer those policies. Religion should be of the private domain, whereas public affairs should be administered through consensual process.

Liberal Islam believes that ijtihad (the rational thinking of Islamic texts) is the main tenet that enables Islam to hold out through any season. Any locking of the gates of ijtihad, partially or even entirely, is a threat to Islam itself and would be considered to degrade Islam. Liberal Islam believes that ijtihad could be held almost in every aspect, within ilahiyyat (theology), ubudiyyat (ritual), or (especially) muamalat (social interaction). Ijtihad, as developed by JIL, is an endeavour of Islam’s interpretation based on the ethical-religious spirit of the Qur’an and the Sunnah, not merely an interpretation of Islam based on the literal meaning of the text. The literal kind of interpretation would only “degenerate” Islam. It is argued that only by using such an ethical-religious spirit based interpretation, will Islam live and grow creatively in association with the universal “humanistic civilization”.

Liberal Islam is based on the notion of “truth” (in religious interpretation) as relative, open and plural. Relative, since an interpretation is “human activity” which is shackled in a certain context; open, since each form of interpretation contains an erroneous possibility, instead

of a correct one; and plural, since each religious interpretation, in one way or other, is a reflection of any interpreter’s need in a climate of incessant change of time and place.

Liberal Islam is now well known as the ideology who promotes pluralism, civil liberties, women’s equality, openness of ijtihad’s gate and separation between religious and political authority. Liberal Islam considers that religion is private and that individual rights be protected.