An Analysis Of Code Mixing Used By Telkomsel's Caroline Officer Call Center Of PT. Infomedia Nusantara Medan

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Some terms are used in this study. Theoretically they need to be explained to avoid misinterpretation of the terms.

2.1 Sociolinguistics

  Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics that takes language as an object of study, in a way that is usually distinguished from how syntax, semantics, morphology, and phonology handle it. It is a field that analyzes language as part of social property. The study explores the functions and the varieties of language, the contacts between different languages, attitudes of people towards language use and users, changes of language, as well as plans on language. In the early definition of the study, some linguists used the term sociology of language, while others named it sociolinguistics. The difference between the names was agreed by some, though today most scholars in the field see it as an insignificant issue. In reference to the difference, the term sociolinguistics was used more to refer to the study of language in relation to society, whereas, sociology of language is used mainly to refer to the study of society in relation to language. Thus, in sociology of language, the emphasized object of study is language. Although the different emphasis seems to make a sense, in practice the discussions is inevitably overlapped.

  The term sociolinguistics has gained much more popularity both in the studies and in the literature discussing the subject. The following definitions on the subject used sociolinguistics as the names of the fields. characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact, change and change one another within a speech community.

  Nancy Parrot Hickerson (in Chaer, 1995:5) states that sociolinguistics is a developing subfield of linguistics which takes speech variation as its focus, viewing variation or it social context. Sociolinguistics is concerned with the correlation between such social factors and linguistics variation.

  Holmes (1992:1) states that sociolinguistics is the study of relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently social contexts and they concerned with identifying the social function of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning.

  The idea that language is not simply a combination of sounds plus structures has triggered an interest in a social language study. According to this perspective, language study should be based more on the view that human experiences are basically plural and every different language and variety of it reflects natural and cultural diversities. The studies concentrated on describing variations found within the use of language in a society are under the frame of sociolinguistics. There are numerous factors influencing the way people speak which are investigated by sociolinguistics.

  a.

  Social class, the position of the speaker in the society, measured by the level of education, parental background, profession and their effect on syntax and lexis used by the speaker.

  Social context, the register of the language used depending on changing situations, formal language in formal meetings and informal during meetings with friends for example.

  c.

  Geographical origins, slight differences in pronunciation between speakers that point at the geographical region which the speaker comes from.

  d.

  Ethnicity, differences between the use of a given language by its native speakers and other ethnic groups.

  e.

  Nationality, clearly visible in the case of the English language: British English differs from American English, or Canadian English.

  f.

  Gender, differences in patterns of language use between men and women, such as quantity of speech, intonation patterns.

  g.

  Age, the influence of age of the speaker on the use of vocabulary and grammar complexity.

   

2.2 Bilingualism

  Generally, bilingualism is about the using of two languages. Weinreich (in Aslinda, 2007:23) states that bilingualism is the practice of alternately using two languages. Mackey (in Aslinda, 2007:24) state that bilingualism is the alternative use of two or more languages by the same individual.

  The person who can use two languages called bilingual and the ability of using the two languages called bilinguality. Besides bilingualism, there is a term of multilingualism that is the situation in which the speaker uses more than two languages in communicating with other people alternately.

  Singh (2001:43) states that bilingual ability at the level of predominance that is how far a bilingual is able to use two languages, would affect one another in using bilingual uses second language continually in long period. When the first language is used again, both languages will be mixed automatically. This behavior creates new issues in linguistics for instance code switching and code mixing.

  Bilingualism is also discussion about the phenomenon of code switching and code mixing. Speakers may take every effort to code mix by including a single utterance from one language although speakers do not actually uses that language very much. The situational context will when a speaker does switching from one language to another language. Thus bilingualism perhaps not only one’s language but also the situation.

2.3 Code

  Code is a term which refers to a variety. Variety is a sociolinguistics term of specific set of ‘linguistic item’ or human speech patterns which we can uniquely associate with some external factor. It is refer to language or a variety of language as a code, being by definition a variation and some other perhaps more standard language. In contrast, Wardaugh (1986:22) states that the ‘natural’ term ‘code’ can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication.

  Code is the particular language one chooses to use in any occasion, a system used for communication between two or more parties. When people are about to speak, they have to choose a particular code to express their minds of feeling. The particular code in this case can be a particular language, dialect, style, register, or variety. Therefore, in daily situation people may use different code in different situation. situation where a choice between two or more codes has to be made. In the situation the bilinguals may want to consider for example, who speaks to them, in which language or variety, and when or where the conversation takes place. To a bilingual or multilingual, although choosing a code is one of the routines, the skill in deciding which code should be chosen still needs developing. The skill of choosing the language is classified as a communicative competence and it is basically developed by observing factors found in the social context of language uses.

  Hymes (in Jendra, 2010: 71) states that, suggested eight factors that bilingual, multilingual, or monolingual people may consider when choosing a code. The factors were formulated into an acronym, namely SPEAKING, which stands for Setting and Scene, Participants, Ends, Act sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms of interaction, and Genre.

  a.

  Setting and Scene The setting and scene are the places, occasions, or natural situations that can influence the people in choosing the code. People may consider choosing a more formal variety of language when talking in an office than when talking in a picnic place. A more moderate attitude in speaking is also found in a ritual or ceremonial occasion than in a street or supermarket.

  b.

  Participants The participants are the people involved in the communication found in the setting. A good public speaker for example, wants to know about his/her audience (the participants) before performing a speech. He/she may think of considering what kind of jokes he/she should tell or whether he/she should speak in a more casual way or formal one after considering the audience.

  Ends The ends are the goals or purposes that a speaker wishes to reach. If a political party delivers a speech in a campaign, he/she wishes to persuade the crowd before him/her in order to receive support for the election.

  d.

  Act sequence The act sequence refers to the order of a speech, a narrative, a conversation, or a talking. A formal speech for example, is set carefully with an opening expression, followed with an introduction, a story, before entering the main topic. The sequence in speaking is then considered to be also an important factor to consider.

  e.

  Key The key is referred to the manner, spirit, and feeling of the message wished to be captured within the conversation. It is also referred to the spirit captured in the voice or manner of a speaker. The spirit or the feeling may be sincere, modest, or low.

  f.

  Instrumentalities The Instrumentalities are referred to the register and forms of the speech. The forms that might be under consideration are whether it will be delivered in a more formal way or a casual friendly one.

  g.

  Norm of interaction The norm of interaction is the contextual custom in using the code, including for example allowance for an interruption, using gestures freely, addressing an audience, eye contacts, distance, asking questions about belief, etcetera.

  Genre The genre is referred to the type of the utterances whether it is in the form of a poem, a proverb, a prayer, a lecture, and etcetera.

  The factors described above have been one of the most important foundations in the general study of code choices. They are popularly known as the components of the ethnography of speaking. In a conversation we might not find the factors to be activated all together. To certain degree these factors in choosing a code might be also helpful to describe factors that influence other forms of language contact phenomenon, namely code switching and code mixing.

2.3.1 Code Switching

  There is a situation where speakers deliberately change a code being used, namely by switching from one to another. The change is called code switching.

  Pietro (in Jendra, 2010:74) states that code switching is the use of more than one language by communicants in the execution of a speech act. Hymes (in Jendra, 2010: 74) states that code switching has become a common term for alternate use of two or more language, or varieties of language, or even speech styles.

  Cases of code switching as above can be classified as the contextual classification. The contextual classification is based on the reasons why a bilingual switches. The classification divides two types of code switching, namely the situational and metaphorical code switching.

  a.

  Situational code switching A situational code switching appears when there is a change in the situation that causes the bilingual switches from one code to the other. In regard to the factors of choosing a code suggested by Hymes (in Jendra, 2010: 76) states

  or the Norms of Interaction. The following short dialog describes an example of a situation when an Indonesian bilingual switches from Indonesian to English because of the presence of an English native speaker friend. Agus : “Menurutku, semuanya karena mereka tidak tahu persis artinya De.” Mark : “Hi, Agus.” Agus : “Eh, how are you Mark? Mark, this is Made, our friend from

   Mataram.”

  Made : “Nice to meet you, Mark.” Mark : “Nice to meet you too. What are you talking about?” Agus : “Nah, ini dia kita bisa... Mark, can you help us?” b. Metaphorical code switching

  A metaphorical code switching happens when there is a change in the perception, or the purpose, or the topic of the conversation. In reference with the factors, this type of switching involves the Ends, the Act Sequences, or the Key, but not the Situation. Bilinguals that code switch metaphorically perhaps try to change the participant's feeling towards the situation. The following example illustrates how some Indonesian students jokingly switch from English to Indonesian to affect a serious dialog to be a bit humorous.   Made : “We want to take it, to where... Ya, itu tempat kita biasa mancing, and we are drinking, singing, having fun, OK.” Ali : “And, there we are surfing, swimming... terus, kita jadi pusing

   pusing dah ... ha ha ha...”

  Made : “Are you joining, Jim?” Jim : “Okay, then.”

  From the definitions above, it is learned that code switching is found more with bilingual or multilingual speakers, although monolinguals may actually be said to switch from a variety or style to another. There are several reasons why bilinguals do code switching. Among the most obvious factors are namely, quoting someone, marking and emphasizing group identity or solidarity, including or excluding someone from a conversation, raising status, and showing language expertise.

  Ohoiwutun (1996:71) states that the case code switching happens for some factors such as the relationship between the speaker and the listener, the purpose of speaking, the discussed topic, time and place the conversation takes place.

  Aslinda (2007:86) states that the general causal factors of code switching are: a. The speaker b.

  The listener c. The change of situation for the coming of the third speaker d. The change from formal to informal and vice versa, and e. The change of the topic.

2.3.3 Code Mixing

  Code mixing is the change of one language to another within the same utterance or in the same oral/written text. Nababan (1993:32) states that code mixing is the situation in which the speaker mixes two or more languages or kind of languages in speech act. Gumperz (in Jendra, 2010:79) states that in code mixing, pieces of one language are used while a speaker is basically using another language. Pfaff (in Jendra, 2010:79) states that conversational code mixing involves the deliberate mixing of two languages without an associated topic or situation change. languages together to the extent which they change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance.

  Wardaugh (2010: 98) states that code mixing divides into two kinds, namely Inter-sentential code mixing and Intra-sentential code mixing.

  a.

  Inter-sentential code mixing.

  An inter-sentential code mixing happens when there is a complete sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base language. For example: An Indonesian bilingual mixes from Indonesian to English.

  “Ini lagu lama, tahun 60an. It's oldies but goodies, they say. Tapi, masih enak kok didengerin.” b.

  Intra-sentential code mixing An intra-sentential code mixing is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause, of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language. For example: An English bilingual mixes from English to French.

  “The hotel, il est grand, is really huge and unbelievably majestic.” Suwito (in Umar, 1993:14) also divides code mixing into two types: a. Inner code mixing

  It occurs if the speaker inserts the elements of their own language into national language, the element of dialect into own language.

  b.

  Outer code mixing Outer code mixing, it occurs if the speaker inserts the element of their own language into foreign language.

  There are some factors that caused people do code mixing. Nababan (1993: 32) states that the bilinguals mix their languages into another language because of the situation since the code mixing happens more often in the relaxed or informal situation as well as showing off their educational background and positions. Breadsmore (1982:38) states that factors that caused people do code mixing are: a.

  Bilingualism It cannot be avoided that the ability to use to speak more than one language is a basic factor of code mixing. Most of the world's population is bilingual or multilingual.

  b.

  Speaker and partner speaking Communication is the process of expressing ideas between two participants of conversation. Speaker needs partner speaking to communicate and code mixing could appear if both use and understand it well.

  c.

  Social community An individual lives and cooperates in one community either in monolingual or bilingual community. Now most communities are bilingual that use two languages in their interactions. In this case, an individual will be influenced by social community directly.

  d.

  Situation Usually code mixing occurs in relax or informal situation. This situation is closer with daily conversation and for writer is also describe as their habitual communication.

  Vocabulary There is not appropriate word or when there is a lack of vocabulary in one language. The inability to find an appropriate word or expression in one language makes people change the word or phrase from one to another language and it can be combined together.

  f.

  Prestige Globalization era has lad people must able to speak more than one language, especially English. For many young people code mixing becomes awn style which is hoped to be modern and educational one. They mix language because prestige.

2.3.5 Similarity and Difference between Code Switching and Code Mixing

  The concept of code mixing is used to refer to a more general form of language contact that may include cases of code switching and the other form of contacts which emphasizes the lexical items. This definition is found in the following excerpt. Muysken (in Jendra, 2010: 78) states that I am using the term code mixing to refer to all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence.

  With the scope as found in the quotation, code mixing can be used to identify almost any linguistic mixed forms resulting from language contacts. Within this, there are three forms of language contacts defined, namely alternation, which is roughly similar with code switching, insertion, which refers to the use of lexical items or entire constituents from a foreign language, and congruent lexicalization, which refers to a situation where the two languages share a grammatical structure which can be filled lexically with elements from either language. here from code switching. With an emphasis on the different grammatical items involved as well as the association with the situation and topic found in the case, the quotations below suggest a theoretical difference between code mixing and code switching. Gumperz (in Jendra, 2010:79) states that in code mixing, pieces of one language are used while a speaker is basically using another language. Pfaff (in Jendra, 2010:79) states that conversational code mixing involves the deliberate mixing of two languages without an associated topic or situation change.

  From the definitions, the difference between code mixing and code switching can be inferred. First, in code mixing, bilingual speakers seem to apply some foreign words or phrases (pieces of one language smaller than clause) while the other language (code) functions as the base. Second, bilingual speakers are said to mix codes (but not switch from one to another) when there is no topic that changes, nor does the situation.

  A different view proposed to separate the two said that if it involves changing into a foreign clause or a sentence, it should be defined as a code switching, but if it involves use foreign phrases or group of words, it is code mixing. Another view considers the formality of the situation, in which mixing is said to be found in the less formal situations while switching is possibly done in a formal one. Another way is by considering the bilingual's level of fluency in the languages (codes). To this perspective fluent bilinguals can perform mixing while the less skilled ones may only do switching. Zvegintsev (1976:18) states that a machine that processes natural language must first be able to categorize, understand and process the wide variety of language components. Some of the different level of language as distinguished which are words, phrases, clauses, sentences, morphemes, syllables, differentiating signs, and phonemes. The last several in lists (morphemes to phonemes) are most important for understanding and replicating speech, so the research will focus mainly on words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Wardaugh (2010:98) states that code mixing divides into inter-sentential code mixing which is happened when there is a complete sentence in foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base language and intra-sentential code mixing which is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause of foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language. From the defenition above, the components of language found in code mixing are word, phrase, clause, and sentence.

  a.

  Word Word is the smallest unit of language that can exist on its own in either written or spoken language. It is also constituents of sentence that due to their order, their suffices, prefixes, and differentiating signs give some meaning. A word is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content (with literal or practical meaning). This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own. Givon (1984:44) defines that word or morpheme is smallest code units in language. It means that morphemes cannot be decomposed into smaller units which are either meaningful or mark such singular or plural. There are two kinds of morpheme. First, free morpheme also called as simple

  Second, bound morpheme always attaches with other word. For example: Player (play + er). This is an example of code mixing in English and Indonesia language in word: “Saya suka nervous kalau di atas panggung.” b. Phrase

  A phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words (or sometimes a single word) that forms a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than a clause. A phrase is group of word acting as single part of speech and not containing both a subject and verb, a part of a sentence and does not express a complete thought. In other word, phrase is a group of words that go together but do not build a complete sentence. This is an example of code mixing in English and Indonesia language in phrase: “Dari cara berbicaranya saja sudah terlihat jika dia mempunyai inner beauty.” c. Clause

  Clause is a group of related words containing a subject and verb. Clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition. A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate, where the predicate is typically a verb phrase – a verb together with any objects and other modifiers. However the subject is sometimes not expressed; this is often the case in null-subject languages, if the subject is retrievable from context, but it also occurs in certain cases in other languages such as English (as in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses. Clause in general classified as independent and dependent clause. An independent clause is the main idea of sentence. It can stand alone by itself or make sense by itself. While a dependent clause is the in other to be a part of sentence. It is also created by a subordinating conjunction. Another of dependent clause is subordinate clause. For example: “The Lady Gaga was canceled because the Indonesian was not true.” “The Lady Gaga was canceled” is independent clause, and “Because the Indonesian was not true” is dependent clause. This is an example of code mixing in English and Indonesia language in clause: “Have a nice dream, mimpikan aku ya.” d. Sentence

  A sentence is a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that are grammatically linked. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion. Based on the meaning, a sentence is a complete though by seeing or nearing a statement. Frank (1972:220) states that based on the function becomes a sentence consist of subject and predicate. This is an example of code mixing in English and Indonesia language in sentence: “Hati-hati di jalan yah! Be smart and fanny girls. See you next week!”