2.1.7 Industrial Electronics Engineering
2.1.1 Communicative Language Teaching
Teaching means facilitating and directing students to learn the materials and providing a good environment for the learning process. A teacher is expected
to be able to provide materials, and select teaching styles, methods, strategies, and approaches for the purpose of providing good teaching. The approach is
considered to be general opinions about what language is and how language works. In this study, the writer would like to elaborate on one of the approaches
underlying second and foreign language learning. The approach being discussed is Communicative Language Teaching CLT. This study considers this approach
because it is the most appropriate choice for vocational high school students. CLT is an approach to second and foreign language teaching that
involves more than simply learning grammatical pattern and rules. It gives the students the chance to improve their ability to communicate in the target language.
CLT provides real-life situations that need communication. Richards and Rodgers 1986, p.66 state that CLT has two aims:
• Encouraging communicative competence which is the goal of language teaching,
• Developing procedures for the teaching of the four language skills. Those two aims acknowledge the interdependence of language and
communication. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
In order to achieve those two aims, Littlewood 1981, p.1 highlights that CLT pays attention to functional communication e.g. apologizing,
describing, promoting, inviting, etc. On the other hand, learners are also equipped with particular grammatical terms that might be used to perform the functions
correctly. To conclude, in line with 2006 English KTSP that aims to provide real-
life communication, CLT is the best approach for vocational high school students because it encourages the students to communicate with others. CLT is adapted to
meet learners’ specific communication needs in the working world.
2.1.1.1 The Characteristics of CLT
Richard and Rodgers 1986, p.69 explain that the characteristics of CLT are learner-centered and experienced-based views of second language learning.
The students are given the chance to develop their knowledge and then to interact using the target language so that their experiences would be internalized. As
quoted by Richard and Rodgers, Hilgard and Bower 1966 agree that CLT is the process of “learning by doing”. Finochiaro and Brumfit in Richard and Rodgers,
1986, p.67 identifies 22 characteristics of CLT. They are: • Meaning is paramount.
• Dialogues, if used, center on communicative functions and are not normally memorized.
• Contextualization is a basic premise. • Language learning is learning to communicate.
• Effective communication is sought. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
• Drilling may occur, but peripherally. • Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
• Any device which helps the learners is accepted. • Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.
• Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible. • Translation may be used when students need to benefit from it.
• It is hoped that reading and writing can start from the first day. • The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of
struggling to communicate. • Communicative competence is the desired goal i.e. the ability to use the
linguistic system effectively and appropriately. • Linguistic variation is a center concept in materials and methodology.
• Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content, function, or meaning which maintains the interest.
• Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
• Language is created by the individual often through trial and error. • Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal.
• The students are expected to interact with other people. • The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.
• Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.
The characteristics of CLT will be the reference in developing Integrated English Instructional Materials for XI Grade Students of Industrial Electronics
Engineering.
2.1.1.2 Theory of Language in CLT
Richard and Rodgers 1986, p.71 assume that language is a system for the expression of meaning. The primary function of language is for interaction and
communication. The functional and communicative dimensions are more considered than the grammatical and structural features. As quoted by Richards
and Rodgers 1986, p.70, Hymes 1795, p.11-17 agrees with their opinion that language is as a means of communication. Hymes claims that language performs
seven basic functions: • Instrumental function: using language to get things.
• Regulatory function: using language to control the behaviour of others • Personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings,
• Heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover • Imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination,
• Representational function: using language to communicate information. The last function of Hymes’ description is the same as Richard and
Rodgers description that language is a means of communication whereas the other five descriptions are of other functions that support the representational function.
In line with the theories of language above, in the working world, language is seen as the apparatus to express its meaning. Language is used as a
means of communication to avoid misunderstanding among the staff.
2.1.1.3 Theory of Language Learning in CLT
Richard and Rodgers 1986, p.19 say that “learning theory is concerned with an account of the central processes of learning and an account of the
condition believed to promote successful language learning”. Moreover, Johnson in Richard and Rodgers, 1986, p.72 promotes three elements of an underlying
learning theory that can be recognized in CLT practices. The first element is the communication principle meaning activities and real communication that promote
learning. The second element is the task principle meaning activities where language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks to promote learning. The last
element is called the meaningful principle. Language, that is meaningful for
learners, supports the learning process. 2.1.1.4 Types of Classroom Activities in CLT
Communicative Language Teaching provides learners with a communicative situation in order to share information, negotiate the information,
and finally interact with others Richard and Rodgers, 1986, p.76. Classroom
activities direct the students to get involved in the target language communication. Littlewood in Richard and Rodgers divides classroom activities into two:
2.1.1.4.1 Functional Communication Activities
The purpose of functional communication activities is to direct the students to get involved in communication in which they have to get the meaning
of the language as effectively as possible. These activities are used to develop certain language functions. The activities include comparing sets of pictures,
recognizing similarities and differences, sequencing events in a set of pictures, discovering missing features in a map, giving and performing instructions on how
to do something, solving problems from shared clues.
2.1.1.4.2 Social Interaction Activities
The main purpose of these activities is to give learners the chance to use the target language in a social context. The activities are conversation and
discussion, dialogues and role-plays, simulations, skits, improvisations, and debates.
Those two activities are used for reference in designing Integrated English instructional materials for XI grade students of industrial electronics engineering.
2.1.1.5 Teacher’s and Learners’ Role in Communicative Classroom
CLT emphasizes the process of communication rather than the mastery of language forms. The role of learners is as negotiators between the self, the
learning process and the object of learning Breen and Candlin, as quoted in Richard and Rodgers, 1986, p.77. Learners are expected to be able to give as
much as they gain. According to Breen and Candlin in Richard and Rodgers 1986, p.77,
there are two main roles for the teacher. They are as facilitators in the communication process and as participants in the classroom. Other teacher’s roles
are as needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2.1.1.6 Communicative Tasks
Nunan 1988: 18 clarifies a communicative task as “a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or
interacting in the target language while their attention principally focuses on meaning rather than form”. This communicative task enables the students to be
able to grasp the target language and perform it in real life situations. The students can express their ideas and feelings or give responses to something happening in
their surroundings. Nunan 1988: 18 mentions some components in analyzing communicative tasks. They are the teacher’s role, the learner’s role, settings,
activities, inputs, and goals. Inputs and activities are different. Input is data for the learners to use, whereas the activities are the job for the learners to perform. An
example of input is a questionnaire from a magazine, while activities are reading the questionnaire followed by asking for and giving information about the
questionnaire. The components are described in the figure below:
Goals Teacher’s
role
Input TASKS
Learner’s role
Activities Settings
Figure 2.1: Framework for Analyzing Communicative Tasks PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Those components determine the tasks that will be used in creating communicative exercises of Integrated instructional materials for XI grade
students of industrial electrics engineering. Nunan says 1988: 20 that the term ‘task’ in the ‘communicative task’ refers to the basic planning tool as result of
changing attitudes toward language and language learning. Furthermore, the changes manifest themselves in the style of language learning and teaching known
as Communicative Language Teaching CLT. Therefore, the teacher’s and learner’s roles in this study refer to CLT.
In this study, I design Integrated English instructional materials. Integrated English instructional materials are printed materials computer-assisted materials,
televised instructions, or materials taken from magazines which are developed through integrated skills listening, speaking, reading, and writing based on the
topic being discussed. The design is supported by the following theories:
2.1.1.7 Integrated Teaching Discrete Skills versus Integrated Skills
According to Kathleen Graves, the four skills listening, speaking, reading, and writing are channels or modes for using and understanding language.
Learning the four skills involves understanding that a text has its own purpose, and how texts are organized so that we can understand them through listening or
reading, and produce them through speaking or writing. It involves learning the sub skills that enable one to be proficient in each skill.
Speaking sub skills include knowing how to negotiate turn-taking and producing fluent stretches of discourse.
Listening sub skills include listening for gist, for tone, for invitations to take a turn.
Reading sub skills include predicting content, understanding the main idea, interpreting the text.
Writing sub skills include using appropriate rhetorical structure, adjusting writing for a given audience, editing one’s writing.
RichardRodgers 2001: 64 also state that integrated materials are a set of instructional materials that contain all four language skills reading, listening,
speaking, and writing are integrative. In learning a language, discrete skills are not suggested as there would be,
for instance, no speaking without listening or no writing without reading. The integration of at least two skills obtains effective language learning. The four
skills are interrelated and interdependent. They have to be integrated since each skill supports and extends learning other skills.
2.1.2 Topic-Based Language Instruction
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