they be professional and relate to a profession job, they may also be socio cultural and relate to education, political systems, or cultural customs.
According to Evans 1986, topics are broken into four sequential stages:
2.1.2.1 Stage 1: Visual Presentation
In the first stage, central concepts are presented through pictures, maps, models, etc. Appropriate structures and vocabulary are introduced, and students
are given the opportunity of describing what they have seen orally and in writing.
2.1.2.2 Stage 2 : Building a Reading Passage
Students answer truefalse questions about the visuals and use these as the basis for building a written passage.
2.1.2.3 Stage 3 : Analyzing and Extending the Reading Passage
At this stage, students focus on some of the linguistic elements in the passage.
2.1.2.4 Stage 4 : Creating a Passage
In the final stage, students produce their own written passage based on the language and content they have acquired in Stages 1-3. The point of departure
may be another visual which might be described or compared with the original visual.
2.1.3 Instructional Design
In designing the instructional materials, I employed Kemp’s model. I also learned the theory of Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan KTSP and English
for Specific Purposes ESP. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2.1.3.1 Kemp’s Model
Kemp follows the system approach where the goal and evaluation are used for adjustment and improvement.
The system approach is the overall plan of the
instructional design compiled in order Kemp, 1977: 6. The strongest reason for selecting Kemp’s model is that Kemp’s model includes all of the steps included in
others’ models, those are: • Determining the goals, topic, and general purposes for teaching each purpose.
• Mentioning the Learners’ Characteristics. • Specifying the Learning Objectives.
• Listing the Subject Content. • Developing Pre-assessment.
• Selecting the TeachingLearning Activities and Instructional Resources. • Coordinating Support Services
• Evaluating the Students’ Learning Kemp’s model of instructional design is a flexible one. The designer can
start from any step as long as all the elements are included. The designer can possibly start from any step depending on which material is available first which
part the designer is ready to design. The designer can choose which part heshe would like to start even though all the materials are already available. Moreover,
Kemp’s model can be applied to all educational levels. Kemp 1977 : 8-9 states that this model can solve three important problems in instructional design. They
are objectives, activities and resources, and evaluation. The designer should consider those three elements as the basis of creating instructional design. If one
of them is missing, then designer fails to make a good design. Kemp’s design 1977 : 19-91 consists of eight parts as follows:
2.1.3.1.1 Determining the Goals, Topics, and General Purposes for Each
Teaching Topic.
In determining the instructional design, a designer should decide the goals of each system, select the topic to be taught, and then specify the general purposes
of each topic. The selection of the topics should consider the items from the simple to the complex level, the correlation with the subject content, and the
students’ characteristics. The general purposes are derived from the topics and should explicitly express students’ expectations and teacher’s accomplishments.
2.1.3.1.2 Mentioning the Learners’ Characteristics
The designer has to find some information about the learners’ needs, interests, and ability. This step is very crucial as students’ characteristics influence
the emphasis in deciding the instructional design.
2.1.3.1.3 Specifying the Learning Objectives
The designer determines the learning objectives in order to achieve certain student performances. The objectives should be measurable and unambiguous so
that students are able to reach the objectives.
2.1.3.1.4 Listing the Subject Content
The subject content supports each objective. Subject content includes the organization of the content and task analysis. Organizing the content is preparing
the outline of the information that will be taught. Meanwhile, task analysis is the list of all procedural elements that are going to be taught.
2.1.3.1.5 Developing Pre-Assessments
The purpose of pre-assessment is to know the students’ background and present knowledge about the topic. Pre-assessment has two kinds of test. They are
pre-requisite testing and pre-testing. Pre-requisite testing aims to determine whether the learners already have the basic knowledge of the topic or not, whereas
pre-testing aims to find which objectives the students have already mastered.
2.1.3.1.6Selecting the TeachingLearning Activities and Instructional Resources
The teachinglearning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content should be selected, so that students will accomplish the tasks
well.
2.1.3.1.7 Coordinating Support Services
The support services are budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. If one of the elements is missing, it
will affect the other elements. This shows that those elements have to be prepared to prevent any possible constraints in designing the plan.
2.1.3.1.8 Evaluating the Students’ Learning
The last stage is evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with the consideration of revising and re-
evaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. The evaluation is conducted to test whether the materials are successfully implemented for the
students. The figure is presented below: PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Figure 2.2: Kemp’s Model
2.1.3.2 Comparison with Other Instructional Models
Besides Kemp’s model, there are other instructional models. For example: Dick and Carey’s model. Dick and Carey’s model describes the phases that begin
with identifying instructional goals and end with summative evaluation. Dick and Carey agree that identifying instructional goals is done first
before a designer uses their model 1978: 17. Nevertheless, Kemp affirms that the first step in designing instructional design is not only identifying the
Support Servic
es
Learning Objectives
Subject Contents
Pre- assessment
Teaching Learning
Activities, Resources
Revise Evaluation
Goals, Topics,
and General
Purposes Learner
Characteris tics
instructional goals, but also listing the topics and determining the general purposes.
Other models are Banathy’s model and Yalden’s model. The steps in both Banathy’s and Yalden’s models are included in Kemp’s model. The reason for
choosing Kemp’s model is that in Kemp’s model, the designer can start from whichever step is ready first, and then the designer can continue designing the
other steps.
2.1.4 Syllabus Types
