Theoretical Review LITERATURE REVIEW

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, three major discussions are presented; those are theoretical description, theoretical framework, and review of related studies. In the theoretical description, the researcher discusses some theories which are relevant to the implementation of video recordings in teaching speaking. Furthermore, in the theoretical framework, the researcher explains the construct and concept used in this research to answer the research questions. And finally, related studies on the use of video recordings in learning speaking are reviewed to support and strengthen the conduct of this study.

A. Theoretical Review

The theoretical review in this section discusses relevant theories in accordance with the research. The existing literature on related topics in this section encompasses the review on speaking accuracy and fluency, and video recordings. 1. Speaking Accuracy and Fluency Second or foreign language learners’ speaking performance will be mostly assessed by several linguistic aspects. These linguistic elements have been taken into account to represent how good one’s speaking proficiency or ability is. Koizumi 2005 states that speaking performance can be seen from several linguistic aspects: fluency, accuracy, syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, quality and quantity of contents, cohesion and coherence, sociolinguistic appropriateness, use of communication strategies, pronunciation, and other 11 aspects. Almost similarly, Bygate 1998 and Skehan 1996 in Goh and Burns 2012 mention that the quality of learners’ speech is characterized by fluency, accuracy, and complexity. However, the majority of foreign language teachers assess their learners’ speaking performance mostly by their accuracy and fluency. Skehan 1996, 1998 in Koizumi 2005 remarks that of the many aspects of speaking performance, fluency, accuracy, syntactic complexity, and lexical complexity become the criteria of scoring speaking due to their extensive use and their significance as learning objectives. More to the point, “fluency and accuracy have been regarded as essential aspects of speaking performance and as having complementary roles” Brumfit, 1984 as cited in Koizumi 2005, p. 43. A number of researchers have similar concepts in addressing and defining speaking accuracy and fluency and they will be discussed separately as follows: a. Accuracy Commonly, accuracy relates to language form. According to Bygate 1998 and Skehan 1996 in Goh and Burns 2012, accuracy happens when the speech’s message is communicated using correct grammar. Another aspect of accuracy can be expanded to include correct pronunciation according to target language norms. Correspondingly, Bygate 2009 remarks that accuracy, one of the speaking skills to which a foreign language speaker should pay attention when speaking, encompasses grammatical rules and pronunciation rules. More to the point, Harmer 2007 adds that vocabulary belongs to speech elements of accuracy. Therefore, accuracy covers three elements including grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary. 12 In order to speak well, learners have to possess adequate knowledge of the language. Goh 2012 lists the elements of knowledge of the language, namely grammatical knowledge, phonological knowledge, lexical knowledge, and discourse knowledge. Since accuracy is concerned with grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary, the researcher discusses three elements of accuracy based on grammatical, lexical, and phonological knowledge. The first accuracy element is grammar. Grammar is usually used as a sign when language learners have made a progress. The view of the more accurate grammar the learners produce, the better the language performance is has seemed to be a typical measurement of someone’s language performance. Luoma 2004, p. 12 states that “learner grammar is handy for judging proficiency because it is easy to detect in speech and writing…” In terms of grammar, Goh 2012 affirms that language learners should know how to use verbs to indicate tenses. They also need to know syntactic knowledge; that is, how words are strung together to express specific grammatical structures and meanings. For example, they must know how to form positive, negative, and interrogative sentences. However, spoken grammar is absolutely different from written grammar. The way how language learners express messages in oral might be simpler than the one in written form. Therefore, assessing speaking should not be based on the written grammar but the spoken one. Luoma 2004 states that in speaking assessment, the grammar should be evaluated based on the grammar of speech. Furthermore, learners should know the knowledge of spoken grammar if they plan to produce natural speech and they should not be completely given a model of the written language Carter 1995; McCarthy and Carter 2001 in Goh 2012. 13 Since spoken grammar differs from written grammar, Goh 2012 presents examples of spoken grammatical features, such as the ‘add on’ strategy: grammatical complexity a term introduced by Biber et all 1999, clausal and non- clausal units: clauses and phrases, ellipsis, deixis, and head and tails. First, the idea of ‘add on’ strategy is used to maintain speech fluency, so when speaking, speakers maintain their speech by adding on ‘clause-like’ structures. Speakers use coordinating clauses, mostly those which are joined by and or but and embedded clauses which begin with because when they produce long utterances where clauses follow each other rapidly in sequence. Second, the use of both clausal and non-clausal units clauses and phrases in speech is frequent as speech is typically interactive. Hence, ‘sentences’ in spoken language are rare; for example, when two speakers are speaking to each other and the conversation requires asking and answering, the utterances may not be in a complete sentence but in clauses or phrases. Luoma 2004 says that idea units of spoken language may consist of clauses with a verb phrase, a noun phrase, and a prepositional phrase, but some of them do not have a verb and occasionally an idea unit is started by one speaker and completed by another. Third, the occurrence of ellipsis in spoken language is often noticed. “Ellipsis is words, phrases, and even whole clauses that are left out because their meaning is redundant in the immediate linguistic or situational context” Goh 2012, p. 89. In other words, even though one speaker does not say complete information, he is definitely sure that his interlocutor will be able to retrieve the information because both of them share the same situational knowledge. 14 Fourth, grammatical features that also exist in spoken language are head and tails. Goh 2012, p. 91 defines heads as “nouns or noun phrases that speakers put before the main message.” For instance, ‘That girl, Rebecca, she is always coming late for appointments.’, and ‘That plaza in Yogyakarta, it is really a one-stop shopping centre.’ are considered as heads. The heads may result in ungrammatical structure as more than one subject occur that plaza, it and that girl, Rebecca, she. Differently, tails are defined as “expressions used to reinforce, extend, elaborate, or clarify the main message” Goh 2012, p. 92. The most common example of tails is question tags. In addition, Thornbury and Slade 2006 in Goh 2012, p. 92 mention that “tails may be single words or noun phrases that serve different interpersonal or evaluative functions”; for instance, ‘So that how the movie ended, terrific.’ Evaluation, ‘That’s a good hotel to stay, Melia Purosani.’ Identification, ‘She won’t pass the test, I bet.’ Comment. Another element of accuracy is vocabulary. Typical problem that language learners face is that they do not have sufficient words to express their messages, whereas to speak well they should be able to express oneself exactly and show their vocabulary richness. Luoma 2004 remarks that richness of lexicon and well-chosen phrases can create vivid descriptions or stories and if a speaker is able to influence his interlocutor’s feelings because of the told descriptions or stories, he is credited with speaking ability. The use of vocabulary in speech is in fact not as ‘sophisticated’ or ‘advanced’ as in written discourse. Luoma 2004 argues that in normal spoken discourse, the words are commonly very ‘simple’ and ‘ordinary’ and the natural use of these ‘simple’ and ‘ordinary’ words are regarded as a marker of highly 15 advanced speaking skills. Additionally, Ure 1971 as cited in Goh 2012 also argues that compared with writing, speech shows less variety of vocabulary, or fewer dissimilar words in text. This less variety of vocabulary may be caused by lexical repetition. Repeating the same words in speech is common. Luoma 2004 states that speakers frequently repeat their own words or the previous speakers’ words to maintain their speech while formulating what they want to say. It can be inferred that vocabulary is also helping one’s fluency, too. Goh 2012 also mentions that lexical repetition exist in spoken discourse to make spoken exchanges hang together. Speakers usually repeat the key words related to the discussed topic. Actually, this lexical repetition may also occur in the form of synonyms or paraphrases. So, instead of using the same key word, the speakers find other words which have a similar meaning with the key word to show more variety of vocabulary. Vocabulary knowledge can be exemplified by the knowledge about lexical sets, denotative and connotative meanings, fixed or formulaic phrases, idiomatic expressions, expressions to organize discourse, expressions to express vagueness vague words and generic words, modality, fillers and hesitation markers Luoma 2004; Goh 2012. The last element of accuracy is pronunciation. In assessing speaking, most teachers will probably put more emphasis on learners’ grammar and range of vocabulary. It is because grammar is considered as a distinctive aspect of one’s language progress and broad range of vocabulary helps learners conveying messages. Yet, when some of the words are not correctly pronounced, it is likely to impede the message conveyance which results in incomprehensibility. 16 Broadly known, pronunciation refers to how words are correctly and clearly articulated. The issue whether second or foreign language learners should acquire ‘perfect’ or native-like pronunciation does exist. However, learners’ pronunciation heavily depends on their attitude to how they speak and how well they hear; therefore, intelligibility in pronunciation should be taken into account Harmer 2007. Pronunciation has some features. Goh 2012 argues that pronunciation has to do with segmental or micro features and suprasegmental or macro features, such as stress, rhythm, and intonation. Almost similarly, Luoma 2004 includes individual sounds, pitch, volume, speed, pausing, stress, and intonation in pronunciation features. As Harmer 2007 suggests that intelligible pronunciation should be the goal, he argues that some pronunciation features are more important than others, such as individual sounds which are included in segmental features, stress, and intonation. In this study, the researcher refers to Harmer’s 2007 pronunciation features that foreign language learners should be able to cope with. The examples of individual sounds are vowel and consonant sounds. Learners should be able to clearly and correctly articulate some sounds if they want to get their message across. For foreign language learners, a number of words in English appear to be similarly pronounced, such as bad and bed, bad and bat, ship and sheep, thing and think, etc. Moreover, novice foreign language learners will find it hard to pronounce the words though, tough, thorough, and through because English has little one-to-one correspondence between sound and spelling. 17 Therefore, learners should have knowledge in articulating some sounds in English to avoid misunderstanding causing incomprehensibility of the message. Additionally, stress is also an essential feature in pronunciation since when a speaker gives incorrect stress on a word, especially on its syllable, the meaning can change. For example, the word ‘subject’ may be given a stress either on the first syllable or the second syllable. If it is stressed on the first syllable, it will be a noun whose meaning is the thing that someone is talking about. If it is stressed on the second syllable, it will be a verb which means to force a country or a group to be ruled. Harmer 2007 argues that “stressing words and phrases correctly is vital if emphasis is to be given to the important parts of messages and if words are to be understood correctly.” Similarly, Goh 2012 says that stress at the world level, the stress which is placed on the syllable and on the phoneme, is crucial in carrying meaning and gives clarity to a speaker’s utterance. In general, stress is given to content words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, whereas function words are not. Stress is varied in words. It is easy to determine the stress in a one-syllable word as there is only one, while in a word having more than one syllable, the stress is more complex. In a two-syllable word, the stress can be placed either on the first or the second syllable. It, then, will modify the type of the word to become a noun or a verb. In a multi-syllable word, primary stress and secondary stress are stressed. Intonation is not less important than individual sound and stress as a feature of pronunciation. Intonation refers to the level of voice or the way in which the pitch of speakers’ voices rises or falls Goh 2012. The Intonation can be an indicator whether we are asking a question or making a statement, or whether we 18 are enthusiastic or bored. Harmer 2007 points out that intonation shows speakers’ grammar and attitude, and plays a crucial role in spoken discourse. On the subject of grammar, a falling tone usually indicates a statement, whereas a rising tone shows a question. Dealing with attitude, high tones can mean different moods, such as anger, fright, and excitement, while low tones may represent someone’s disappointment or sadness. In speaking interaction, intonation also brings signals; for instance, a falling tone may signify that a speaker has finishes saying his point and wants his interlocutor to reply or respond to what he has said, while a rising point implies that a speaker wishes to keep going. b. Fluency Fluency is broadly known as a speech in an appropriate speed of delivery and without any hesitations. Fillmore 1979 as cited in Kormos and Denes 2012 proposes fluency in extensive concepts. First, fluency is the ability to speak with few pauses and to fill the time with talk. Second, being fluent also means that a speaker should be able to express hisher message coherently. Third, a fluent speaker must know what to say in a wide of range of contexts. Finally, a fluent speaker is creative and imaginative in their language use. Narrower concepts are suggested by different researchers. Nunan 2003 defines fluency as using the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses. Identically, Wolfe- Quintero et al. 1998 as cited in Koizumi 2005, p. 51 remark that fluency is “how fast and how much a learner speaks without dysfluency markers e.g., functionless repetitions, self-corrections, and false starts in “coping with real time processing”.” More to the point, Bygate 1998 and Skehan 1996 in Goh and Burns 2012 point out that fluency occurs when the speech’s message is 19 communicated comprehensibly with rare pauses and hesitations. A detailed description of being fluent in speaking is presented by Diyyab, Haq, and Aly 2013: 6 as follows: Speaking at a normal speed without stumbling over words and sounds with perfect English, conveying the speakers message in an easy, clear, and understandable way, using a simple language that suits the listeners level, producing comprehensible sentences with no major complications, exposing ideas calmly and spontaneously, arguing persuasively, organizing the oral production both cognitively and physically, manifesting a certain number of hesitations, pauses, backtracking and corrections, and using gap-fillers correctly. Based on several notions of fluency suggested by different researchers, the researcher concludes that fluency comprises three aspects, namely speed of delivery, comprehensibility of the language produced, and infrequent occurrence of pauses and hesitations smoothness of speech delivery. Fluency categorization is made into three types: cognitive fluency, utterance fluency, and perceived fluency Segalowitz 2010 as cited in De Jong 2012. First, when a speaker is able to perform hisher speech competently, heshe is credited with cognitive fluency. Therefore, it can be implied that this cognitive fluency has to do with the comprehensibility of the language produced by the speaker. Second, utterance fluency can be seen from a sample of speech and is constructed by breakdown fluency, speed fluency, and repair fluency. Breakdown fluency is indicated by the ongoing flow of speech. The speech is analyzed by calculating the total filled and unfilled pauses. Speed fluency can be measured by calculating the number of syllables per second. Repair fluency is indicated by the frequency of false starts, corrections, or repetitions. Third, perceived fluency is defined as the listeners’ impression of the fluency of a certain speech sample. Since fluency comprises three aspects: speed of delivery, comprehensibility of the 20 language produced, and infrequent occurrence of pauses and hesitations smoothness of speech delivery, fluency, in this study, is then measured by cognitive and utterance fluency. When speaking, maintaining fluency is essential to get the message across. Bygate 2009 explains that to maintain speech fluency, a language learner should be able to apply production skills facilitation and compensation. When a speaker encounters language problem, especially in finding the words they need or in structuring their utterances, he may facilitate and compensate production of speech. 2. Video-Recordings Technology, without exception, has been considered helpful in pedagogy. The availability of a variety of media technologies allow users to record audio and video files in a reasonably short amount of time leading to the increased use of video cameras in lecture halls and other learning environments Odhabi Nicks- McCaleb, 2009 as cited in Kirkgöz 2011. Additionally, according to Kurt 2011 as cited in Diyyab et al 2013, the incorporation of multimedia programs including some multimedia instructional materials such as, graphics, videos and audios has widely benefited learning and teaching. In general, this use of multimedia programs in pedagogy has increased active participation among students, fostered the quality of the learning outcome and offered opportunities for learners to have control over their learning time and place. Accordingly, utilizing video-recordings particularly in second and foreign language pedagogy is not impossible. 21 Video recordings are the products of a technological device. Swaffar and Vlatten 1997 as cited in Shrosbree 2008 defines video as a “multi-sensory medium”. A multi-sensory medium means a medium which involves sight and hearing. Differently from audio-recordings, videos offer visual aids assisting the viewers to understand, learn, and remember better. In agreement with Swaffar and Vlatten 1997, Shrosbree 2008 states that “videos allow learners to see the context of the discourse and the speaker’s body language as well as other visual aids to comprehension”. For example, listening to an English lesson aired in a radio station can lead to incomprehensibility. What the listeners do is forming the idea in their mind about what the lesson could be like. The result of this act of forming could swerve from what the lesson is intending. Using videos can avoid this misconception or misinterpretation. Video-recordings are made for different purposes. Particularly in language classrooms, videos are made to help teacher to explain the lesson and facilitate the students to learn. Shrosbree 2008 introduces three types of video that can be used in language learning: teacher-made videos, student-made videos, and assessment videos. First, teacher-made videos are created to help their students in learning. Videos allow teachers to prepare clear models of what students are expected to do in classroom activities. For instance, a teacher may cooperate with other teachers to create a video demonstration of how a certain activity must be done since the students will not understand if the teacher only gives an oral instruction. Teachers can also create videos for content-based instruction CBI which suit their students. Second, the examples of student-made videos can be in the form of making movie projects which require them to work based on an 22 arranged plan and for a large amount of time to make an impressive finished product. In a smaller scope, the students videotape their own speaking performance in classroom which does not need a large amount of time as in making movie projects. The last type of video is assessment video. Assessment videos, considered as documents or archives, are usually used to evaluate and assess students’ productive performance. For instance, teachers can use videos as media to assess students’ speaking performance. By means of videos, they can watch the students’ speaking performance for several times if they are supposed to give a thorough assessment. More favorably, videos do not require teachers to give immediate assessment compared to live speaking assessment. More to the points, video-recordings aid teachers to keep track of students’ progress in speaking. Teachers might also use video-recorded portfolios of students’ speaking assignments. As the storage space is enormous in CDs, DVDs and computers, a product could be saved and searched for easily using this type of media. In this study, the researcher focused on student-made videos to facilitate speaking accuracy and fluency. Several studies on the use of video-recordings in language teaching and learning have been conducted, such as Hirschel, Yamamoto, and Lee 2012, Christianson, Hoskins and Watanabe 2009, Kirkgöz 2011, Yamkate and Intratat 2012, Guo 2013, and Tsang and Wong 2002. These studies affirm that video-recordings bring positive outcomes, such as promoting students’ speaking skills and enhancing students’ presentation or public speaking skills. 23 3. The Nature of Video-Recordings-Facilitated Class The success of the use of video-recordings in bringing positive learning outcome is because its application offers several characteristics which are beneficial for second and foreign language learning, particularly in learning speaking. As cited in Kırkgöz 2011: 2, integrating video-recording of student speaking in language learning offers several advantages: First, students can watch and see themselves and their fellow friends’ performances. Similarly, teachers can use video to help students become better speakers in English Lonergan, 1984; Tomalin Stempleski, 1990. In addition, students have the opportunity to view the recording on video more than once. Thus, recordings allow students to replay the video as many times as they need; so, they can make self-evaluation of themselves as well as their fellow friends. As a consequence, students become self-critical, because they can see their problems and trace their improvements. Video-recordings allow learners to self-correct their own speech since they can see and watch themselves in the video. Lewis 2002 argues that learners do not easily forget once they are able to discover their own mistakes. Thus, self- correction possibly builds learners’ awareness of not making the same mistakes in the future. Even, students may become self-critical as they are encouraged to analyze their language problems. She also adds that self correction can grow learners’ independence. Teachers can be considered as the main language resource for learners, but learners themselves can be. Scharle and Szabo 2005 affirm that learners’ own efforts are important in order to progress. Self-correction can be regarded as an effort to learn something where learners make errors work for them. More to the point, Scharle and Szabo 2005 say that making effort in learning develops learners’ responsibility which subsequently leads to autonomy. Similarly, Harmer 2007 asserts that the students’ attempt to monitor and judge 24 their own language production is likely to enhance learning since teachers help them to develop the awareness of how well they have done. Monitoring and judging one’s own language or self correction is actually one of metacognitive learning strategies. Brown 2004 mentions that self- monitoring, correcting one’s speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, belongs to metacognitive strategies. Teaching learners with learning strategies brings not only learning progress, but also autonomy. Harmers 2007 and Scharle and Szabo 2005 suggests that developing learners’ own learning strategy or training learners’ learning strategies can make them become autonomous learners. Correspondingly, Benson 2011 overtly points out that self-assessment is an example of classroom-based approaches which brings students to autonomy. In addition to self-correction, video-recordings provide an opportunity for the learners to learn interactively. Based on Vygotsky 1978, learning is more than just an individual process, but a social process where the learners communicate or share their knowledge with others; therefore, new knowledge and understanding are constructed. Watching other’s speaking performance through videos called peer-feedback is one of examples of learning interactively. Murphy 1986:146 states that “correction does not have to come from the teacher alone, for in communication activities it will come just as appropriately if not more so from fellow learners.” In addition, Wachob 2011 points out that video- recordings enable peer feedback which undoubtedly enhances motivation. In line with Wachob, Harmer 2007 also states that learners may not be able to help and give motivation to other learners only through individualized learning. The motivation arises possibly because when one student is lack of language 25 knowledge and needs helping, the other student can assist; therefore, eagerness of knowing or learning more from a friend who knows more emerges. Students who are considered to know more feel that they actually can bring contribution towards their friends’ progress. In other words, learning with other learners is required since a well-known saying says ‘two heads are better than one’ as what Pearce, et al 2009 argue that when students are engaged through peer review, more different views are exposed. Peer feedback can reflect cooperative learning as it requires interaction between one student with another student. As cited by Richards and Rodgers 2003: 192, Olsen and Kagan 1992 define cooperative leaning as “a group learning activity that is organized so that learning is dependent on the social structure, exchange information between learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others.” The statement clearly clarifies that cooperative learning benefits learners since learning in groups generates more ideas and exposes different points of view which is to enrich their own knowledge and the knowledge of others. One who does not know may ask someone who knows. They are learning how to work together in the classroom and how to be independent learners as the students themselves play roles as the sources of the information and information seekers. It agrees with what Harmer 2007 suggests that learning with others can promote learner independence. Peer-feedback trains the students to be critical in analysis, too. More importantly, learning with others is an example of learning strategies, particularly socioaffective strategies. As discussed formerly, encouraging learners to fervently apply learning strategies in 26 their learning helps them become autonomous. As well, Benson 2011 argues that various kinds of collaborative work in groups or pairs have also been viewed as beneficial to the development of autonomy. Briefly, peer-feedback can definitely be one example of learning activities enhancing autonomy. Video-recordings allow learners to get self-corrections and peer-feedback which challenge their independence. However, teachers’ corrections are still necessary since Harmer 2007 claims that one of teachers’ roles is as resource. Lewis 2002 mentions two ways of giving feedback by teachers, namely collective feedback and conferencing feedback. Classically, teachers prefer giving collective feedback since it saves times. Nonetheless, some students with learning difficulty perhaps need more help to be able to make the feedback work for them. Some students could have no ideas about the feedback and needs further explanation. Another type of giving feedback is conferencing feedback. It is one- to-one consultation in which learners sit together with the teacher and have the discussion on the students’ work. Conferencing feedback provides learners with individual attention from the teacher and greater chance to ask questions related to the feedback. Harmer 2007 states that a teacher should be able to act as a tutor who provides students with a personal contact. Although teachers are regarded as the main language source for the students, teachers giving feedback had better not explain everything in detail. Prompting occasionally the students to identify their own weaknesses makes them learn. Teaching students in the Zone of Proximal Development ZPD makes students learn better Rezaee and Azizi, 2012. ZPD is the area between the level of potential development the level where students are not able to do independently, 27 but able to do under guidance and the level of actual development the level where students can do independently. In other words, ZPD is the area where students receive instruction or are being guided in learning. Therefore, when teaching language skills in the students’ ZPD, teachers should be able to identify the area where they need guidance. Regarding feedback, video-recordings provide the accuracy, objectiveness, and specifics of the corrections. Video-recordings surely assist learners to see the exact part where they have made errors and decide which areas should be improved. The precision of locating learners’ errors can be obtained as video recordings provide adequate time for evaluation as they can stop, rewind, pause, and re-start the videos several times according to their needs. Christianson et al 2009 argue that the use of video recordings allows both students and teachers to do thorough or accurate evaluation on the various aspects of performance as they can watch the video as many times as necessary. In speaking, teachers typically list the learners’ errors write learners’ errors on paper which is later given to them. However, teachers possibly miss some language problems to assess or even they forget what to correct after the students’ speech has finished. Harmer 2007 mentions that giving feedback after the event can be problematic since teachers are likely to easily forget what the students have said. Besides, learners are likely to be skeptical, a feeling of unbelieving that they actually have made the errors, when they read the feedback. Therefore, video- recordings help teachers to find the overlooked language problems that need correcting and anticipate when teachers prefer giving correction after the event. Also, the learners are able to watch the video, especially the parts where the errors 28 exist and later decide how to refine them. Shrosbree 2008 asserts that video- recordings enhance the validity and reliability of language assessment and facilitate to discover areas learners need to improve. Additionally, video-recordings can be convenient media to give feedback or correction which prevents teachers’ interruption. Not few teachers sometimes give excessive feedback or correction when learners are still performing speech. This way of giving corrections are certainly disruptive causing absent-mindedness about what to say next. Consequently, learners are not able to optimally express the organized ideas. Moreover, anxious and failing students will feel even worse as starting speak is already a very hard work. Harmer 2007 mentions that one of the problems is teachers’ over-correction while the students are speaking which is likely to impede the students’ speaking. He adds that teacher’s intervention might raise students’ level of stress. Indeed, teachers are often dilemmatic when students are involved in fluency work. When they make accuracy errors, teachers feel that they necessarily have to point out and correct the errors immediately. However, teachers had better not to do such interruption during fluency work since the students will frequently stop which fails fluency acquisition. Harmer 2007: 143 argues that “during communication activities, however, it is generally felt that teachers should not interrupt students in mid-flow to point out a grammatical, lexical or pronunciation error, since to do so interrupts the communication and drags an activity back to the study of language form or precise meaning.” For that reason, video-recordings can facilitate teachers who would prefer to give immediate feedback in the student’s mid-flow, but do not want to impede fluency. 29 Video-recordings provide learners with an opportunity to get feedback privately and personally. Given correction at the moment of speaking in front of the class will give students a sense of embarrassment. Two of several causes of English speaking fears and language anxiety in classroom proposed by Tinjacá and Contreras 2008 are monotonous classes methodological causes and public embarrassment risk social affective causes which undoubtedly create less motivation. Horwitz and Cope 1986, and Maclntyre and Gardner 1989, 1991c in Brown 2004: 162 identify that “Foreign Language anxiety is caused by fear of negative social evaluation, arising from a learner’s need to make a positive social impression on others.” Basically learners want others to have a good impression towards them and avoid things causing embarrassment. Thus, how feedback and correction are given should not make learners worried of negative judgment by their friends. Dorney 2011 confirms that teachers should allowing learners to maintain a positive social image by avoiding avoid humiliating criticisms and corrections and offering criticism in private. Video-recordings can facilitate them to learn out of the classroom. Wachob 2011: 27 remarks “when students are allowed the time and space, to activate their critical thinking skills and to create their own evaluations, they are closer to embracing autonomous learning. Using videos in and out of the classroom is one way to achieve this.” Learning out of the classroom offers them flexibility in time and place. Learners become decision makers who decide when and where they learn. Video-recordings are ‘handy’ since they can be saved in devices which students can easily carry anywhere and anytime, such as CDs, DVDs, flash disks, cellphones, and laptop. Therefore, students have greater opportunity to maximize 30 out-of-classroom learning. Felix 2003, Collentine 2000, and Singh 2003 in Kirkgöz 2011 state that L2 courses that incorporating technology into face-to- face instruction have been found to promote L2 learning effectively as they can provide flexibility to learners to work independently, at their own pace, promoting language acquisition. Since flexibility is able to enhance learners’ independence, and independence and autonomy are closely interrelated, flexibility may also lead to autonomy. When students decide to spare their time to learn out of classroom, they actually do an effort which is intended and deliberate. It shows responsibility as being good learners and the sign of being responsible for one’s own learning is one of the characteristics of autonomy. Scharle and Szabo 2005 says that “consciously monitor one’s own progress, and make an effort to use available opportunity to his benefit, for example looking up a word at home that the teacher is about in the lesson actually they are autonomous in the sense that they act independently.” Good learners undoubtedly tend to create good quality products. Video- recordings can contribute the quality of learners work in speaking. Video- recordings are very possible to involve repetitive speaking practice for learners to produce best quality products. Learners are always able to polish up their speech until they are satisfied with it. Sharma and Parrett 2007 in Diyyab et al 2013 pinpoint that videos enable learners to record their dialogues, to play it back, to evaluate their own utterances, and to have the chance to keep practicing and refining their attempts in order to improve their speaking fluency skills. When they refine the videos, they actually learn how to be a good learner. They do practices in which they may encounter a number of language errors and then make 31 an effort to fix them. Three out of fourteen characteristics of a good language learners proposed by Rubin and Thompson, 1982 in Brown 2004: 132 include “make errors work for them and not against them, are creative, developing a ‘feel’ for the language by experimenting with its grammar and words and use linguistic knowledge in learning a second language.” When the learners are tring to improve their speech videos, they essentially work with the elements of language accuracy. Not only do the elements of language accuracy the learners work with. They work with fluency as well. Nation and Newton 2009 proposes several techniques for developing fluency and one of them is involving a tape or digital recorder. Video-camera is a device which is also used to record; therefore, video-camera producing video-recordings definitely help develop fluency. Within the technique, the students record the talk, then listen to it and note down what to improve. Afterwards, the re-record the talk and it may take several times until the students are pleased with the recording. “This technique involves planning and encourages repetition through the setting of a quality-based approach.” Nation and Newton, 2009: 162. Repetition, doing practice and rehearsal, belongs to cognitive strategies proposed by Brown 2004. Facilitating learners with learning strategies while learning promotes autonomy enhancing language acquisition. Learning without motivation is impossible. Motivation undoubtedly increases the students’ learning achievement. Dorney 2001 states that breaking the monotony of learning can maintain and protect motivation. Some teachers sometimes do not realize that they have used the same teaching approaches since they are trapped in routines. Consequently, it hampers students’ motivation. A number of solutions are by modifying tasks and varying teaching techniques. 32 Integrating video-recordings during teaching can bring a sense of different atmosphere in the classroom as what Shrosbree 2008; 76 says that “a further benefit of video is that it can simply provide a welcome break from the rigors of more traditional study.” More to the point, asking the students to produce tangible outcome raises their motivation as well Dorney, 2001. Video-recordings can be considered as a concrete finished product which the students can show to public. Through tasks which allow the students to share and to publicly display their projects and skills, students’ satisfaction increases. Satisfaction is a factor that which increases the students’ motivation to learn to reach the ultimate goal Dorney, 2001. Showing tangible products can fulfill the students’ self-esteem. Maslow 1970 mentions that naturally people have esteem needs, such as achievement, prestige, approval, recognition and self-respect. In other words, students surely need to show their pride that they are capable of accomplishing tasks in a very good way and then want compliments in returns. Teachers enable to motivate students by providing a good model of what should be targeted. It means that teachers had better inform the students what kind of target they have to achieve. Dorney 2001 argues that students need model success to achieve targeted expectation. He mentions that video-recordings can be used to demonstrate what learners should achieve. Murphey 1998 as cited in Dorney 2001 says that peer role models presented either in person or on video may give a lasting impression for some learners. 4. Video-Recordings and Language Acquisition Language learning and language acquisition are inseparable. The two terms are often used interchangeably. However, learning and acquisition are differently 33 defined. Krashen 1981 in Ellis 2001: 969 defines learning as “the development of conscious knowledge of an L2 through formal study.” Learning happens consciously and results in explicit knowledge. In contrast, acquisition is defined as “the spontaneous and incidental process of rules internalization that results from natural language use, where the learner’s attention is focused on meaning rather than form” Krashen, 1981 cited in Ellis, 2001: 953. In other words, acquisition is a subconscious process of acquiring language which results in implicit knowledge. Language acquisition takes place when the aspects of language learning to foster the language acquisition are met. Nation 2007 proposes four strands that should be in a language course to achieve the learning goals; namely fluent control of the sound, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse features of the language used to communicate effectively. The four strands include meaning- focused input, language-focused learning, meaning-focused output, and fluency development. Figure 2.1 Nation’s Four Strands Model 2001 34 The meaning-focus input focuses mainly on the ideas of the texts that the learners read or listen to, for example stories, news or conversations. The emphasis of this strand is the students’ understanding and enjoyment on the texts. This meaning-focus input draws on Krashen’s Input Hypothesis 1982. Input Hypothesis claims that learners will acquire language when they understand comprehensible input. Comprehensible input is one which is a little bit beyond their current level of competence. Since giving meaning-focused input is not sufficient, language-focused learning is necessarily required. The language-focused learning is to give attention to the language features, such as the pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse. Long 1988 and Ellis 1990 in Nation 1996 argue that giving language-focused learning is essential since it can accelerate the language acquisition and enhance the learner’s control of grammar. The two preceding strands are relevant to the use of video recordings. While the learners are watching their friends’ videos, they are actually both picking up meaning-focused input and learning the language forms. They make efforts to understand their peers’ talks, enjoy the others’ speaking performance at the same time and pay attention to the language features as well. Watching their own videos while being evaluated by the teacher is also giving them meaning-focused input and language-focused learning. What the students have gained during the two strands is helpful to produce better language production in the re-video-taping. The third strand of language learning is output. In this strand, the learners are encouraged to produce language as the result of input. Nation 1996 states that knowledge is needed to speak so ‘forcing’ the learners to speak is essential. 35 Griffin and Harley 1996 in Nation 2007:4 also argue that “productive learning typically results in more and stronger knowledge than receptive learning.” Swain’s Comprehensible Output Hypothesis 1985 supports this strand. Comprehensible Output Hypothesis claims that language acquisition takes place when learners are pushed to produce language. The efforts that the learners have to make to be able to produce comprehensible output will foster language acquisition. The use of video-recordings strongly supports this third strand. It demands the learners to produce language even a more comprehensible and finer output since they are able to do ‘unlimited’ rehearsal. Skehan 1998a in Ellis 2001 argues that one of production roles is to oblige learners to pay attention to the target language grammar. Therefore, when learners are aware of grammar, speaking accuracy is enhanced and thereby results in fluency as Nation 1996 affirms that fluency and accuracy are interdependent. As formerly stated by Skehan 1998a about one of the roles of production, the output indeed strand plays a vital role to arouse the students’ awareness of something ‘missing’ in their language. When the students speak, they will be likely to notice the gaps. Consequently, the learners will notice the meaning- focused input and language-focused instruction to fill the gaps. If they are unable to deal with the gaps, they may ask for assistance from the teacher or fellow friends to see how they can handle the problems during the production. Asking for assistance can result in learning interactions which reveal Long’s Interaction Hypothesis 1983. Interaction Hypothesis claims that language acquisition is facilitated when interaction happens. During interaction, negotiation of meaning 36 which happens between a student and a student as well as a student and a teacher provide learners with comprehensible input and thereby assist acquisition. The use of video-recordings certainly cause teacher-student and student-student interactions to happen. In student-student interaction, more competent learners will of course assist less competent learners by giving language input or linguistic forms that were problematic to them. The final strand is fluency practice or fluency development. In this strand, the learners should maximize the use of knowledge they have already known and the activity should be meaning-focused. The considerable meaning-focused practice will simultaneously develop learners’ language knowledge as Nation 1996 argues that the development in fluency affects the development in accuracy. In addition, Nation 2007 states that one of the two major types of fluency activities is the one involving repetitive reception or production of the same material. Referring to the use of video-recordings, fluency practice can be facilitated by means of video camera. Nation and Newton 2009 says that either a tape or digital recorder technically helps fluency development. A tape or digital works similarly as a video camera which allows the learners to record the talk, then listen to it and note down what to improve. Afterwards, the re-record the talk and it may take several times until the students are pleased with the recording. This activity involves repetitive production of the same material promoting the fluency of the targeted English skill.

B. Review of Related Studies