Facilitating students` speaking accuracy and fluency through video recordings.

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ABSTRACT

Rina. 2015. Facilitating students’ speaking accuracy and fluency through video recordings. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program of Sanata Dharma University.

Successful speaking performance is generally judged by both accuracy and fluency. Conventionally, task modification is typically designed to facilitate both fluency and accuracy in learning speaking, whereas another alternative using technology is also possible and it has been a trend in pedagogy. Odhabi and Nicks-McCaleb (2009) as cited in Kırkgöz (2011) state that media technologies facilitate users to record audio and video files and they result in the increase of video camera use in lectures and other learning environments. Therefore, the researcher was eager to find out whether the use of video-recordings in English instruction would positively affect the students’ performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. This study was to answer the following three research questions: 1) Is the students’ speaking accuracy in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular class? 2) Is the students’ speaking fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular class? 3) What aspects of video-recordings facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency? The objectives of the study were to test the hypotheses that the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class are better than the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency in the regular class, and to assure that the aspects of video-recordings truly facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.

The subjects of the study were nursing students of Muhammadyah University of Yogyakarta. The study employed two classes. One was the control group consisting of 21 students and the other class was the experimental group consisting of 21 students. This study used mixed methods. The quantitative data were the students’ gain scores obtained by subtracting the students’ speaking post -test scores from the pre--test scores. The gain scores were statistically computed using ANCOVA test to test the difference between means in the experimental group and control group. The qualitative data were gathered through questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaires were distributed to collect information about the students’ opinions on the aspects of video-recordings which contributed to the improvement of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency. The interviews were aimed to follow up the results of the questionnaires.

The study managed to reveal that the students’ accuracy and fluency in the experimental group are better that those in the control group. For the accuracy, the result of ANCOVA test indicates p-value is lower than 0.05 (0.010 < 0.05). Similarly, for the fluency, the result of ANCOVA test indicates that p-value is lower than 0.05 (0.010 < 0.05). This study shows that the contributory elements of video-recording facilitated class which benefit the students’ speaking accuracy are self-correction, peer-feedback, one-to-one teacher evaluation, visual and auditory feedback immediacy and feedback preciseness or exactness, repetition/refinement, flexibility, and video display. In other words, all of the aspects are helpful for students. Differently, the elements of video-recording-facilitated class which benefit the students’ speaking fluency are one-to-one teacher evaluation, visual

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and auditory feedback immediacy and feedback preciseness or exactness, repetition/refinement, flexibility, and video display. The questionnaire analysis has found that self-correction and peer-feedback while watching the video-recording are less contributory to the improvement of students’ speaking fluency. Keywords: speaking accuracy, speaking fluency, video-recordings

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ABSTRAK

Rina. 2015. Memfasilitasi Keakuratan dan Kefasihan Kemampuan Lisan melalui Rekaman Video. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Kemampuan lisan yang bagus pada umumnya dinilai baik dari keakuratan dan kefasihan seseorang. Biasanya, penyelarasan tugas dirancang untuk memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan dalam pembelajaran lisan, padahal alternatif lain dengan menggunakan teknologi juga mungkin digunakan dan hal ini telah menjadi suatu tren dalam dunia pendidikan. Odhabi dan Nicks-McCaleb (2009) sebagaimana dikutip oleh Kırkgöz (2011) menyatakan bahwa media teknologi memfasilitasi pengguna untuk merekam data audio dan video. Hal ini menunjukkan meningkatnya penggunaan kamera dalam perkuliahan dan lingkungan belajar lainnya. Oleh karena itu, peneliti tertarik untuk membuktikan apakah penggunaan rekaman video dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris akan berpengaruh positif terhadap keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Kajian ini dilakukan untuk menjawab tiga rumusan masalah berikut: 1) Apakah keakuratan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa di kelas Bahasa Inggris yang menggunakan rekaman video lebih baik daripada mahasiwa di kelas regular? 2) Apakah kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa di kelas Bahasa Inggris yang menggunakan rekaman video lebih baik daripada mahasiwa di kelas regular? 3) Apa saja aspek rekaman video yang memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa? Tujuan dari kajian ini adalah untuk menguji hipotesa bahwa mahasiswa di kelas dengan fasilitas rekaman video memiliki keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan yang lebih baik daripada mahasiswa di kelas reguler serta untuk menegaskan bahwa aspek rekaman video benar-benar memfasilitasi keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa.

Subyek kajian penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa keperawatan Universitas Muhammadyah Yogyakarta. Kajian penelitian ini melibatkan dua kelas. Satu kelas berfungsi sebagai kelas kontrol yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa dan satu kelas lainnya berfungsi sebagai kelas percobaan yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa. Kajian penelitian ini menerapkan metode penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Data kuantitatif adalah nilai pencapaian mahasiswa yang diperoleh dengan mengurangi nilai ujian akhir dengan nilai ujian awal. Nilai pencapaian tersebut diolah secara statistik dengan menggunakan ANCOVA untuk mengetahui apakah ada perbedaan yang signifikan. Data kualitatif diambil melalui kuesioner dan wawancara. Kuesioner disebarkan untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang pendapat mahasiswa akan aspek rekaman video yang berkontribusi pada peningkatan keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Wawancara tersebut bertujuan untuk menindaklanjuti hasil dari kuesioner yang telah disebarkan.

Kajian ini berhasil menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa dalam kelas percobaan memiliki keakuratan dan kefasihan yang lebih baik daripada mahasiswa yang berada dalam kelas kontrol. Untuk nilai keakuratan, hasil dari uji ANCOVA mengindikasikan bahwa p-value lebih rendah dari 0.05 (0.010<0.05). Untuk nilai kefasihan, hasil dari uji ANCOVA mengindikasikan bahwa p-value lebih rendah daripada 0.05 (0.010<0.05).

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Kajian ini menunjukkan bahwa elemen yang berkontribusi pada kelas yang menggunakan rekaman video yang membantu meningkatkan keakuratan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa antara lain adalah evaluasi diri, masukan dari teman, evaluasi tatap muka dengan pengajar, ketersediaan sarana visual dan audio, ketepatan masukan, pengulangan/perbaikan, fleksibilitas, dan pemutaran video. Dengan kata lain, keseluruhan aspek terbukti mendukung peningkatan dalam hal ketepatan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Sedangkan, elemen yang berkontribusi pada kelas yang menggunakan rekaman video yang membantu meningkatkan kefasihan kemampuan lisan adalah evaluasi tatap muka dengan pengajar, ketersediaan sarana visual dan audio, ketepatan masukan, pengulangan/perbaikan, fleksibilitas, dan pemutaran video. Berdasarkan analisis kuesioner, evaluasi diri dan masukan dari teman ketika menonton rekaman video kurang berkontribusi pada peningkatan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa.

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FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND

FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

A THESIS

Presented as A Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theMagister Humaniora(M.Hum) Degree

in English Language Studies

by RINA

Students Number: 126332021

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2015

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A THESIS

FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

by RINA 126332021

Approved by

Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A, ………

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A THESIS

FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

by RINA 126332021

Was Defended in front of the Thesis Committee and DeclaredAcceptable

Thesis Committee

Chairperson :Dr. J. Bismoko _____________ Secretary :F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D. _____________ Member :Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. _____________ Member : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd., M. A. _____________

Yogyakarta, ... The Graduate School Director Sanata Dharma University

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else's idea, phrase, or sentence without a proper reference.

Rina

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN

AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswi Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Rina

Nomor Mahasiswa : 126332021

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberi royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Yang menyatakan,

Rina

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, praises and thanks to ALLAH. Only by the grace of ALLAH have I been given strength and optimism to complete this thesis.

This thesis would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of the following persons, and I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to each of them.After the completion of this hard work, my very special gratitude is for my thesis advisor Bapak Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. Without his assistance throughout the process, this thesis would have never been accomplished. I would like to thank you very much for your willingness to spend your time reading and gave valuable inputs on my work. My indebtedness goes to KBI lectures, Dr. J. Bismoko, F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D. and Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.,who gave me valuable comments and suggestions.

I must thank Ibu Noor Qomaria, M.Hum, who gave me permission to conduct my research in the Language Teaching Centre, Muhammadyah University of Yogyakarta and allowed me to teach fewer classes than the required ones. I would also like to thank Bapak Ajar Sagobi, S.S, who helped me set the classes for my research. I am extremely thankful to my colleagues, Ibu Ika Widi Retnary, S.Pd., who gladly helped me teach the control group and Ibu Siti Nurjanah, S.Pd., who scored the students’ performance. My thankfulness also goes to Ibu Wuri Ekayani, S.Pd and Fardo, who sincerely helped me transcribe the students’ interview and speaking speeches as well as Ibu Arum Oktaviani, S.S., who proofread the questionnaires. To the nursing students, I thank you all for the participation and for the unforgettable and valuable experience during the research. From you I learned how to deal with problems and be a better teacher.

Most importantly, none of this could have happened without my family. My deepest gratitude goes to my husband, who patiently and persistently encouraged me to complete my thesis. Every time I was ready to quit, his positive words that I had to be optimistic and believe in myself that I could accomplish it were successfully boosting my motivation. To my beloved mother, I thank you for the sincerity and understanding during my study in KBI. You sincerely devoted your time and energy to taking care of Abraham when I had only little devotion to my own son during my study and the thesis completion. I am forever grateful to my cherished son, who became my biggest motivation ever that I had to finish my study soon. This thesis stands as a testament to your unconditional love and encouragement.

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TITTLE PAGE ………... APPROVAL PAGE ………... DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ………. STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY ……….. LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH

UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ………... ACKNOLEDGEMENTS ……….. TABLE OF CONTENTS ………... LIST OF TABLES ………. LIST OF FIGURES ……… LIST OF APPENDICES ……… ABSTRACT ………... ABSTRAK ………. i ii iii iv v vi viii ix x xi xiii xiv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION………

A. Background of the Study ………. B. Problem Limitation ……….. C. Problem Formulation ………... D. Research Objectives ………. E. Research Benefits ………

1 1 6 7 7 8

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW………..

A. Theoretical Review ……….. 1. Speaking Accuracy and Fluency………

a. Accuracy……….

b. Fluency………...

2. Video-Recordings……….. 3. The Nature of Video-Recordings ……….... 4. Video-Recordings and Language Acquisition……… B. Review of Related Studies ………... C. Theoretical Framework ………

10 10 10 11 18 20 23 32 36 40

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY………

A. Research Methods ……… 46 46

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B. Data Gathering Techniques ………. C. Setting and Participants of the Study ………... D. Research Procedures and Experiment ……….. E. Data Analysis ………...

49 54 55 58 CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS……… A. Analysis Results ………... 1. The ANCOVA Test Results………... a. Accuracy ……….. b. Fluency ………. 2. Questionnaire Results………. 3. Interview Results………. B. Discussions ……….. 1. The Students’ Speaking Accuracy and Fluency……….. 2. The Nature of Video-Recording-Facilitated Class……….

a. Self-Correction………...

b. Peer-Feedback………

c. One-to-One Teacher Evaluation……… d. Visual and Auditory Immediacy and Feedback Preciseness….. e. Repetition/Refinement……… f. Flexibility………...

g. Video Display……….

63 63 63 65 67 68 71 74 75 78 79 82 84 88 90 92 94

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS………

A. Conclusion ………... B. Suggestions ………..

97 97 99 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….. APPENDICES ……… 101 105

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8

The Rubric of Speaking Accuracy and Fluency ………… The Aspects of Video-recordings ……….. The Scale Value ………. The Questionnaire Blueprint ……….. The Research Process from Pre-Test to Post-Test ………. The Mean Criteria ……….. Normality Test for Accuracy Gain Scores ………. Descriptive Statistics ofANCOVATest for Accuracy …... TheANCOVAtest Result for Accuracy ………. Normality Test of Fluency Gain Scores ………. Descriptive Statistics ofANCOVATest for Fluency …... TheANCOVAtest Result for Fluency ……… The Questionnaire Results: Indicators and Interpretations The Samples of Interview Results ……….

41 44 51 51 56 61 65 66 66 67 67 68 70 71

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

The Nation’s Four Strands (2001) ……… Stages of One Implementation of Video-Recording ……… The Mean Criteria Formulation (Sudijono, 2009: 175) …...

33 58 61

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 01. Appendix 02. Appendix 03a. Appendix 03b. Appendix 04. Appendix 05. Appendix 06. Appendix 07. Appendix 08. Appendix 09a. Appendix 09b. Appendix 10. Appendix 11. Appendix 12 Appendix 13

Pre-Test and Post-Test ………... Rubrics ………... Lesson Plans (Experimental Group) ……….. Lesson Plans (Control Group) ………... Self and Peer Evaluation Checklist ………... Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores (Control Group) ……… Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores (Experimental Group) ... Questionnaire Blueprint ……… Gain Scores ……… Questionnaire (English) ………. Questionnaire (Indonesian) ……… Interview Guidelines ……….. Questionnaire Results ……… Interview Results ………... Samples of Students’ Speaking Transcripts …………..

106 108 111 120 126 128 129 130 134 135 137 140 141 145 159

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ABSTRACT

Rina. 2015. Facilitating students’ speaking accuracy and fluency through video recordings. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program of Sanata Dharma University.

The subjects of the study were nursing students of Muhammadyah University of Yogyakarta. The study employed two classes. One was the control group consisting of 21 students and the other class was the experimental group consisting of 21 students. This study used mixed methods. The quantitative data were the students’ gain scores obtained by subtracting the students’ speaking post-test scores from the pre-post-test scores. The gain scores were statistically computed using ANCOVA test to test the difference between means in the experimental group and control group. The qualitative data were gathered through questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaires were distributed to collect information about the students’ opinions on the aspects of video-recordings which contributed to the improvement of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency. The interviews were aimed to follow up the results of the questionnaires.

The study managed to reveal that the students’ accuracy and fluency in the experimental group are better that those in the control group. For the accuracy, the result of ANCOVA test indicates p-value is lower than 0.05 (0.010 < 0.05). Similarly, for the fluency, the result of ANCOVA test indicates that p-value is lower than 0.05 (0.010 < 0.05). This study shows that the contributory elements of video-recording facilitated class which benefit the students’ speaking accuracy are self-correction, peer-feedback, one-to-one teacher evaluation, visual and auditory feedback immediacy and feedback preciseness or exactness, repetition/refinement, flexibility, and video display. In other words, all of the aspects are helpful for students. Differently, the elements of video-recording-facilitated class which

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ABSTRAK

Rina. 2015. Memfasilitasi Keakuratan dan Kefasihan Kemampuan Lisan melalui Rekaman Video. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Subyek kajian penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa keperawatan Universitas Muhammadyah Yogyakarta. Kajian penelitian ini melibatkan dua kelas. Satu kelas berfungsi sebagai kelas kontrol yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa dan satu kelas lainnya berfungsi sebagai kelas percobaan yang terdiri dari 21 mahasiswa. Kajian penelitian ini menerapkan metode penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Data kuantitatif adalah nilai pencapaian mahasiswa yang diperoleh dengan mengurangi nilai ujian akhir dengan nilai ujian awal. Nilai pencapaian tersebut diolah secara statistik dengan menggunakan ANCOVAuntuk mengetahui apakah ada perbedaan yang signifikan. Data kualitatif diambil melalui kuesioner dan wawancara. Kuesioner disebarkan untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang pendapat mahasiswa akan aspek rekaman video yang berkontribusi pada peningkatan keakuratan dan kefasihan kemampuan lisan mahasiswa. Wawancara tersebut bertujuan untuk menindaklanjuti hasil dari kuesioner yang telah disebarkan.

Kajian ini berhasil menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa dalam kelas percobaan memiliki keakuratan dan kefasihan yang lebih baik daripada mahasiswa yang berada dalam kelas kontrol. Untuk nilai keakuratan, hasil dari uji ANCOVA mengindikasikan bahwa p-valuelebih rendah dari 0.05 (0.010<0.05). Untuk nilai kefasihan, hasil dari uji ANCOVA mengindikasikan bahwa p-value lebih rendah daripada 0.05 (0.010<0.05).

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to introduce the use of video recordings and how it was applied in the classroom, and how it was effective to enhance the students’ speaking performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. This chapter is to provide background information related to the subject matter being explored and analyzed, present the motivation why the researcher intends to conduct the research on the subject matter, the limitation of the study, problem formulation, research objectives and research benefits.

A. Background of the Study

Different notions about what makes speaking successful have emerged. There is a perspective claiming that one is considered successful in performing a speech when he is able to make himself and his interlocutor understand no matter how incorrect the language is. On the other hand, there is also a view that correctness in every aspect of language is vital. The former view is fluency-oriented, while the latter is accuracy-oriented. Without any doubt, most today’s English teachers insist that the first notion is more important and the second one is out-dated. Willerman (2011) mentions that many EFL teachers agree that fluency should be emphasized. Those who support fluency claim that accuracy-oriented approach will certainly hinder the students’ achievement in English (Gosuch 2011 as cited in Diyyab, Haq, and Aly 2013). Students’ achievement is related to the natural acquisition of a language. Making errors in learning a foreign language is not avoidable, but it is a natural process; therefore, the amount of corrections

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should be given as little as possible (Willerman 2011). Furthermore, accuracy may cause boredom among students and results in demotivation for the students (Stern 1991 as cited in Willerman 2011). However, not few English teachers still persist in holding a view that accuracy is more important. Brown (2001) as quoted by Diyyab, Haq, and Aly (2013) argues that language teachers have always considered accuracy the most important oral ability. If accuracy is neglected, fossilization occurs as stated in Diyyab, Haq, and Aly (2013: 100) that “accuracy-oriented approach which accepts that grammatical errors cannot be neglected, that is because they can result in fossilization.” If fossilization happens, it is difficult for a language learner to change the habit of producing wrong language forms. More to the point, speaking without accuracy may reduce the language intelligibility. Ebsworth (1998) as cited in Willerman (2011) says that speech containing inaccurate vocabulary, syntax, or pronunciation may cause incomprehensibility of the language itself.

Accordingly, speaking fluently without accuracy or speaking accurately without fluency cannot be acceptable if someone wishes to perform a good speaking performance. Bailley (2003) remarks that “in language lessons, particularly in the beginning and intermediate levels, learners must be given opportunities to develop both their fluency and accuracy.” In addition, in EFL speaking classes both accuracy and fluency are equally important (Diyyab, Haq, and Aly 2013). Both accuracy and fluency are influential towards each other as accuracy brings fluency and fluency brings further accuracy (Willerman 2011).

In foreign language speaking classes, bringing both accuracy and fluency at the same time have been a challenging matter. Giving an emphasis on either

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accuracy or fluency will not bring about an optimal speaking performance. Building fluency is typically hampered by interrupting and frequent recasts done by teachers. While a student is producing a speech and errors are apparently noticed, the teacher instantly interrupts and corrects them. If it happens repeatedly, it may discourage the student to speak causing fluency failure. Willerman (2011) argues that correction can cause discouragement; therefore, giving correction should be appropriately done for it enables learners to see the exact location where errors have been made. On the other hand, building accuracy is hindered because of letting the students speak without giving any language corrections as they speak although errors are obviously found. Consequently, there should be media which accommodate the language learners to enhance their speaking accuracy and fluency.

Conventionally, task modification is typically designed to facilitate both fluency and accuracy in learning speaking, whereas another alternative using technology is also possible and it has been a trend in pedagogy. Odhabi and Nicks-McCaleb (2009) state that media technologies facilitate users to record audio and video files and it results in the increase of video camera use in lectures and other learning environments (as cited in Kırkgöz, 2011). In EFL context, the availability of media technologies offer numerous ways which teachers can use to help learners learn foreign languages. In speaking classes, the use of technological devices which can video tape or video record, such as digital camera, cell phones, or handycams may assist English language learners to improve speaking.

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Accordingly, the use of video recordings alternatively appears to facilitate learners in speaking class to improve their speaking performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. As cited in Kırkgöz (2011: 2), integrating video-recording of students’ speech in language learning offers several advantages:

First, students can watch and see themselves and their fellow friends’ performances. Similarly, teachers can use video to help students become better speakers in English (Lonergan, 1984; Tomalin & Stempleski, 1990). In addition, students have the opportunity to view the recording on video more than once. Thus, recordings allow students to replay the video as many times as they need; so, they can make self-evaluation of themselves as well as their fellow friends. As a consequence, students become self-critical, because they can see their problems and trace their improvements.

Explicitly stated that the use of video-recordings enables learners to videotape their speaking practice and use the recordings to reflect. In addition, the use of video recordings extends peer support and feedback. In other words, the use of video-recordings trains learners to learn how to learn. Conservatively, most teachers tend to give feedback to their learners without giving them an opportunity to assess their own speaking, whereas providing the students an opportunity to evaluate themselves may increase their awareness that they, indeed, need to learn from their mistakes. In agreement with the concept that learners ought to learn how to learn, they should be given an agency meaning that students should be the doers rather than the recipient in language learning. Kraayenoord and Paris (1997) as cited in Abdullah (2011) affirm that when they are given the opportunity to do reflection, make judgment, and mark their own work, they are realistically aware of their weaknesses and strengths. Hence, this modern alternative can facilitate learners to become autonomous learners who are responsible for their own learning.

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In addition, as cited by Shrosbree (2008: 76), more advantages of video recordings are presented by different researches.

A further benefit of video is that it can simply provide a welcome break from the rigors of more traditional study…Video technology can also be used to document students’ language production, both to enhance the validity and reliability of language assessment, and to provide motivating and rewarding tasks with a clear, meaningful purpose and a concrete finished product (Biegel, 1998). Furthermore, students can observe their own current English oral proficiency (Shinohara, 1997), and thus discover areas they need to improve.

The use of video-recordings possibly allows learners to learn in an environment outside the classroom setting. Harmers (2007) suggests that to compensate for the limited time in classroom and to enhance the success of language learning, students need encouraging to develop their own learning strategy to become autonomous learners. In addition, since video-recordings can be used as the documents of the students’ language production, teachers need not interrupt the students’ speaking only to give corrections. It is previously explained that giving corrections while the students are speaking is believed to impede fluency.

In summary, considering the advantages of video-recordings presented by several researchers, the use of video-recordings is certainly applicable in foreign language pedagogy, specifically in teaching and learning speaking. Furthermore, its benefits may lead to the effectiveness in assisting the development of students’ speaking performance in terms of accuracy and fluency. The effectiveness of the use of students’ video recording will be presented in a form of students’ speaking scores. The score between speaking pre-test and post-test will be compared to see whether improvement is found.

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B. Problem Limitation

Indeed, the use of technology has been explored in pedagogical world. Teachers are expected to embed technology in their classroom to maximize the learning outcome. Therefore, this study would examine the use of video-recordings, products of technological devices, to facilitate the students’ learning. In this study, the researcher set some restrictions. First, this study used the students’ recorded speech or oral production. In this study, the recordings were the student-made videos which required the students to video-tape their own short speech. The technological devices used to video video-tape could be cellphones or digital camera or any other technological devices which were considered practical to video-record. More to the point, the students’ speech was focused on expository routines. Bygates (2009: 23) defines routines as “a conventional ways of presenting information and expository routines are those which involve factual information hinging on questions of sequencing or identity of the subject.” The examples of expository routines include description, narration, instruction, and comparison. In this study, the students would narrate, describe, and compare. The restriction was also for the aspects of speaking performance which need facilitating. Koizumi (2005) states that speaking performance can be seen from the linguistic aspects, which are typically used for assessment, such as fluency, accuracy, syntactic and lexical complexity, quality and quantity of content, use of communication strategies, and other aspects. This study focused on two aspects, namely accuracy and fluency. Brumfit (1984) as cited in Koizumi (2005) remarks that accuracy and fluency have been considered

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as vital aspects of speaking performance and as complementary roles. Finally, this study focused on non-English major university students’ who learn speaking. C. Problem Formulation

This study would attempt to answer:

1. Is the students’ speaking accuracy in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular English class?

2. Is the students’ speaking fluency in the video-recording-facilitated English class better than that of the students in the regular English class?

3. What aspects of video-recordings facilitate the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency?

D. Research Objectives

This study had two main objectives. Firstly, this study was to prove the researcher’s belief that the use of video-recordings effectively facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency. Hence, the statistical computation using

ANCOVA _{was applied to see the effectiveness. The gain scores of experimental}

group and control group, which would be the representative of the students' accuracy and fluency development, were compared. The gain scores were obtained by subtracting the speaking pre-test scores from the speaking post-test scores. The statistical computation would reveal the difference of significance between experimental group and control group. The difference of significance indicated that the use of video-recordings affected the students’ speaking performance. In other words, the use of video-recordings did support the development of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.

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Secondly, this study was to verify that all aspects of video-recordings positively led to the improvement of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency. In this study, the natures of video-recordings included self-evaluation, peer-feedback, one-to-one teacher consultation, visual and auditory immediacy and feedback preciseness, flexibility, repetition, and video display. This current study aimed to find which natures of video-recordings dominantly facilitated the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency and discuss how they were able to effectively enhance the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.

E. Research Benefits

This study would benefit those who engage in pedagogy including language teachers, language learners, language centers and further researchers. Hopefully, the application of video-recordings is able to inspire language teachers to utilize more technological devices in language teaching. In other words, language teachers may consider the application of video-recordings in their classes as an alternative teaching technique which can facilitate their students in learning any English skills and lead them to better learning achievement. Besides, it is hoped that this study brings better understanding for language teachers about the rewarding natures of vide-recordings in foreign language teaching. More to the point, this study will encourage language teachers to update themselves with more knowledge related to teaching English using technology as well as upgrade their teaching skills using technology in the classroom.

For language learners, this study presents them advantages of learning using technology. First, the implementation of video-recordings brings different learning atmosphere which can enthuse them to learn. It is about time the students

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engaged in language learning activities using technological devices they use daily. Second, video-recordings offer learner-centeredness where the students have chances to autonomously evaluate their own performance, work collaboratively with friends in peer-evaluation and video display, and learning flexibly at their own pace. The conduction of this study surely leads learners to realize that technology can be possibly used in language learning and train them to become autonomous learners who are responsible for their own learning, think critically, and act cooperatively.

This study expectantly will benefit the language centers in terms of the student language learning outcomes. The conduction of this study has proved that teaching and learning using technological devices is able to produce better language learning outcomes. Therefore, language centers may consider accommodating their classrooms with technological devices used as teaching and learning media.

Lastly, in general the researcher hopes that this study can inspire further researchers to enrich the existing studies on the use of technological tools as teaching and learning media in language classrooms. Specifically, this study is expected to give further researchers motivation to conduct similar or further researches on the use of video-recordings with more participants, longer implementation, and more thorough and objective analysis on the students’ speaking performance.

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, three major discussions are presented; those are theoretical description, theoretical framework, and review of related studies. In the theoretical description, the researcher discusses some theories which are relevant to the implementation of video recordings in teaching speaking. Furthermore, in the theoretical framework, the researcher explains the construct and concept used in this research to answer the research questions. And finally, related studies on the use of video recordings in learning speaking are reviewed to support and strengthen the conduct of this study.

A. Theoretical Review

The theoretical review in this section discusses relevant theories in accordance with the research. The existing literature on related topics in this section encompasses the review on speaking accuracy and fluency, and video recordings.

1. Speaking Accuracy and Fluency

Second or foreign language learners’ speaking performance will be mostly assessed by several linguistic aspects. These linguistic elements have been taken into account to represent how good one’s speaking proficiency or ability is. Koizumi (2005) states that speaking performance can be seen from several linguistic aspects: fluency, accuracy, syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, quality and quantity of contents, cohesion and coherence, sociolinguistic appropriateness, use of communication strategies, pronunciation, and other

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aspects. Almost similarly, Bygate (1998) and Skehan (1996) in Goh and Burns (2012) mention that the quality of learners’ speech is characterized by fluency, accuracy, and complexity.

However, the majority of foreign language teachers assess their learners’ speaking performance mostly by their accuracy and fluency. Skehan (1996, 1998) in Koizumi (2005) remarks that of the many aspects of speaking performance, fluency, accuracy, syntactic complexity, and lexical complexity become the criteria of scoring speaking due to their extensive use and their significance as learning objectives. More to the point, “fluency and accuracy have been regarded as essential aspects of speaking performance and as having complementary roles” (Brumfit, 1984 as cited in Koizumi 2005, p. 43). A number of researchers have similar concepts in addressing and defining speaking accuracy and fluency and they will be discussed separately as follows:

a. Accuracy

Commonly, accuracy relates to language form. According to Bygate (1998) and Skehan (1996) in Goh and Burns (2012), accuracy happens when the speech’s message is communicated using correct grammar. Another aspect of accuracy can be expanded to include correct pronunciation according to target language norms. Correspondingly, Bygate (2009) remarks that accuracy, one of the speaking skills to which a foreign language speaker should pay attention when speaking, encompasses grammatical rules and pronunciation rules. More to the point, Harmer (2007) adds that vocabulary belongs to speech elements of accuracy. Therefore, accuracy covers three elements including grammar, pronunciation, and

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In order to speak well, learners have to possess adequate knowledge of the language. Goh (2012) lists the elements of knowledge of the language, namely grammatical knowledge, phonological knowledge, lexical knowledge, and discourse knowledge. Since accuracy is concerned with grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary, the researcher discusses three elements of accuracy based on grammatical, lexical, and phonological knowledge.

The first accuracy element is grammar. Grammar is usually used as a sign when language learners have made a progress. The view of the more accurate grammar the learners produce, the better the language performance is has seemed to be a typical measurement of someone’s language performance. Luoma (2004, p. 12) states that “learner grammar is handy for judging proficiency because it is easy to detect in speech and writing…” In terms of grammar, Goh (2012) affirms that language learners should know how to use verbs to indicate tenses. They also need to know syntactic knowledge; that is, how words are strung together to express specific grammatical structures and meanings. For example, they must know how to form positive, negative, and interrogative sentences. However, spoken grammar is absolutely different from written grammar. The way how language learners express messages in oral might be simpler than the one in written form. Therefore, assessing speaking should not be based on the written grammar but the spoken one. Luoma (2004) states that in speaking assessment, the grammar should be evaluated based on the grammar of speech. Furthermore, learners should know the knowledge of spoken grammar if they plan to produce natural speech and they should not be completely given a model of the written language (Carter 1995; McCarthy and Carter 2001 in Goh 2012).

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Since spoken grammar differs from written grammar, Goh (2012) presents examples of spoken grammatical features, such as the ‘add on’ strategy: grammatical complexity (a term introduced by Biber et all 1999), clausal and non-clausal units: clauses and phrases, ellipsis, deixis, and head and tails. First, the idea of ‘add on’ strategy is used to maintain speech fluency, so when speaking, speakers maintain their speech by adding on ‘clause-like’ structures. Speakers use coordinating clauses, mostly those which are joined byand orbut and embedded clauses which begin with because when they produce long utterances where clauses follow each other rapidly in sequence.

Second, the use of both clausal and non-clausal units (clauses and phrases) in speech is frequent as speech is typically interactive. Hence, ‘sentences’ in spoken language are rare; for example, when two speakers are speaking to each other and the conversation requires asking and answering, the utterances may not be in a complete sentence but in clauses or phrases. Luoma (2004) says that idea units of spoken language may consist of clauses with a verb phrase, a noun phrase, and a prepositional phrase, but some of them do not have a verb and occasionally an idea unit is started by one speaker and completed by another.

Third, the occurrence of ellipsis in spoken language is often noticed. “Ellipsis is words, phrases, and even whole clauses that are left out because their meaning is redundant in the immediate linguistic or situational context” (Goh 2012, p. 89). In other words, even though one speaker does not say complete information, he is definitely sure that his interlocutor will be able to retrieve the information because both of them share the same situational knowledge.

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Fourth, grammatical features that also exist in spoken language are head and tails. Goh (2012, p. 91) defines heads as “nouns or noun phrases that speakers put before the main message.” For instance, ‘That girl, Rebecca, she is always coming late for appointments.’, and ‘That plaza in Yogyakarta, it is really a one-stop shopping centre.’ are considered as heads. The heads may result in ungrammatical structure as more than one subject occur (that plaza, it and that girl, Rebecca, she). Differently, tails are defined as “expressions used to reinforce, extend, elaborate, or clarify the main message” (Goh 2012, p. 92). The most common example of tails is question tags. In addition, Thornbury and Slade (2006) in Goh (2012, p. 92) mention that “tails may be single words or noun phrases that serve different interpersonal or evaluative functions”; for instance, ‘So that how the movie ended,terrific.’ (Evaluation), ‘That’s a good hotel to stay,Melia Purosani.’ (Identification), ‘She won’t pass the test,I bet.’ (Comment).

Another element of accuracy is vocabulary. Typical problem that language learners face is that they do not have sufficient words to express their messages, whereas to speak well they should be able to express oneself exactly and show their vocabulary richness. Luoma (2004) remarks that richness of lexicon and well-chosen phrases can create vivid descriptions or stories and if a speaker is able to influence his interlocutor’s feelings because of the told descriptions or stories, he is credited with speaking ability.

The use of vocabulary in speech is in fact not as ‘sophisticated’ or ‘advanced’ as in written discourse. Luoma (2004) argues that in normal spoken discourse, the words are commonly very ‘simple’ and ‘ordinary’ and the natural use of these ‘simple’ and ‘ordinary’ words are regarded as a marker of highly

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advanced speaking skills. Additionally, Ure (1971) as cited in Goh (2012) also argues that compared with writing, speech shows less variety of vocabulary, or fewer dissimilar words in text. This less variety of vocabulary may be caused by lexical repetition. Repeating the same words in speech is common. Luoma (2004) states that speakers frequently repeat their own words or the previous speakers’ words to maintain their speech while formulating what they want to say. It can be inferred that vocabulary is also helping one’s fluency, too. Goh (2012) also mentions that lexical repetition exist in spoken discourse to make spoken exchanges hang together. Speakers usually repeat the key words related to the discussed topic. Actually, this lexical repetition may also occur in the form of synonyms or paraphrases. So, instead of using the same key word, the speakers find other words which have a similar meaning with the key word to show more variety of vocabulary. Vocabulary knowledge can be exemplified by the knowledge about lexical sets, denotative and connotative meanings, fixed or formulaic phrases, idiomatic expressions, expressions to organize discourse, expressions to express vagueness (vague words and generic words), modality, fillers and hesitation markers (Luoma 2004; Goh 2012).

The last element of accuracy is pronunciation. In assessing speaking, most teachers will probably put more emphasis on learners’ grammar and range of vocabulary. It is because grammar is considered as a distinctive aspect of one’s language progress and broad range of vocabulary helps learners conveying messages. Yet, when some of the words are not correctly pronounced, it is likely to impede the message conveyance which results in incomprehensibility.

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Broadly known, pronunciation refers to how words are correctly and clearly articulated. The issue whether second or foreign language learners should acquire ‘perfect’ or native-like pronunciation does exist. However, learners’ pronunciation heavily depends on their attitude to how they speak and how well they hear; therefore, intelligibility in pronunciation should be taken into account (Harmer 2007).

Pronunciation has some features. Goh (2012) argues that pronunciation has to do with segmental (or micro) features and suprasegmental (or macro) features, such as stress, rhythm, and intonation. Almost similarly, Luoma (2004) includes individual sounds, pitch, volume, speed, pausing, stress, and intonation in pronunciation features. As Harmer (2007) suggests that intelligible pronunciation should be the goal, he argues that some pronunciation features are more important than others, such as individual sounds which are included in segmental features, stress, and intonation.

In this study, the researcher refers to Harmer’s (2007) pronunciation features that foreign language learners should be able to cope with. The examples of individual sounds are vowel and consonant sounds. Learners should be able to clearly and correctly articulate some sounds if they want to get their message across. For foreign language learners, a number of words in English appear to be similarly pronounced, such as /bad/ and /bed/, /bad/ and /bat/, /ship/ and /sheep/, /thing/ and /think/, etc. Moreover, novice foreign language learners will find it hard to pronounce the words /though/, /tough/, /thorough/, and /through/ because English has little one-to-one correspondence between sound and spelling.

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Therefore, learners should have knowledge in articulating some sounds in English to avoid misunderstanding causing incomprehensibility of the message.

Additionally, stress is also an essential feature in pronunciation since when a speaker gives incorrect stress on a word, especially on its syllable, the meaning can change. For example, the word ‘subject’ may be given a stress either on the first syllable or the second syllable. If it is stressed on the first syllable, it will be a noun whose meaning is the thing that someone is talking about. If it is stressed on the second syllable, it will be a verb which means to force a country or a group to be ruled. Harmer (2007) argues that “stressing words and phrases correctly is vital if emphasis is to be given to the important parts of messages and if words are to be understood correctly.” Similarly, Goh (2012) says that stress at the world level, the stress which is placed on the syllable and on the phoneme, is crucial in carrying meaning and gives clarity to a speaker’s utterance. In general, stress is given to content words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, whereas function words are not. Stress is varied in words. It is easy to determine the stress in a one-syllable word as there is only one, while in a word having more than one syllable, the stress is more complex. In a two-syllable word, the stress can be placed either on the first or the second syllable. It, then, will modify the type of the word to become a noun or a verb. In a multi-syllable word, primary stress and secondary stress are stressed.

Intonation is not less important than individual sound and stress as a feature of pronunciation. Intonation refers to the level of voice or the way in which the pitch of speakers’ voices rises or falls (Goh 2012). The Intonation can be an indicator whether we are asking a question or making a statement, or whether we

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are enthusiastic or bored. Harmer (2007) points out that intonation shows speakers’ grammar and attitude, and plays a crucial role in spoken discourse. On the subject of grammar, a falling tone usually indicates a statement, whereas a rising tone shows a question. Dealing with attitude, high tones can mean different moods, such as anger, fright, and excitement, while low tones may represent someone’s disappointment or sadness. In speaking interaction, intonation also brings signals; for instance, a falling tone may signify that a speaker has finishes saying his point and wants his interlocutor to reply or respond to what he has said, while a rising point implies that a speaker wishes to keep going.

b. Fluency

Fluency is broadly known as a speech in an appropriate speed of delivery and without any hesitations. Fillmore (1979) as cited in Kormos and Denes (2012) proposes fluency in extensive concepts. First, fluency is the ability to speak with few pauses and to fill the time with talk. Second, being fluent also means that a speaker should be able to express his/her message coherently. Third, a fluent speaker must know what to say in a wide of range of contexts. Finally, a fluent speaker is creative and imaginative in their language use. Narrower concepts are suggested by different researchers. Nunan (2003) defines fluency as using the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses. Identically, Wolfe-Quintero et al. (1998) as cited in Koizumi (2005, p. 51) remark that fluency is “how fast and how much a learner speaks without dysfluency markers (e.g., functionless repetitions, self-corrections, and false starts) in “coping with real time processing”.” More to the point, Bygate (1998) and Skehan (1996) in Goh and Burns (2012) point out that fluency occurs when the speech’s message is

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communicated comprehensibly with rare pauses and hesitations. A detailed description of being fluent in speaking is presented by Diyyab, Haq, and Aly (2013: 6) as follows:

Speaking at a normal speed without stumbling over words and sounds with perfect English, conveying the speaker's message in an easy, clear, and understandable way, using a simple language that suits the listener's level, producing comprehensible sentences with no major complications, exposing ideas calmly and spontaneously, arguing persuasively, organizing the oral production both cognitively and physically, manifesting a certain number of hesitations, pauses, backtracking and corrections, and using gap-fillers correctly.

Based on several notions of fluency suggested by different researchers, the researcher concludes that fluency comprises three aspects, namely speed of delivery, comprehensibility of the language produced, and infrequent occurrence of pauses and hesitations (smoothness of speech delivery).

Fluency categorization is made into three types: cognitive fluency, utterance fluency, and perceived fluency (Segalowitz 2010 as cited in De Jong 2012). First, when a speaker is able to perform his/her speech competently, he/she is credited with cognitive fluency. Therefore, it can be implied that this cognitive fluency has to do with the comprehensibility of the language produced by the speaker. Second, utterance fluency can be seen from a sample of speech and is constructed by breakdown fluency, speed fluency, and repair fluency. Breakdown fluency is indicated by the ongoing flow of speech. The speech is analyzed by calculating the total filled and unfilled pauses. Speed fluency can be measured by calculating the number of syllables per second. Repair fluency is indicated by the frequency of false starts, corrections, or repetitions. Third, perceived fluency is defined as the listeners’ impression of the fluency of a certain speech sample.

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language produced, and infrequent occurrence of pauses and hesitations (smoothness of speech delivery), fluency, in this study, is then measured by cognitive and utterance fluency.

When speaking, maintaining fluency is essential to get the message across. Bygate (2009) explains that to maintain speech fluency, a language learner should be able to apply production skills (facilitation and compensation). When a speaker encounters language problem, especially in finding the words they need or in structuring their utterances, he may facilitate and compensate production of speech.

2. Video-Recordings

Technology, without exception, has been considered helpful in pedagogy. The availability of a variety of media technologies allow users to record audio and video files in a reasonably short amount of time leading to the increased use of video cameras in lecture halls and other learning environments (Odhabi & Nicks-McCaleb, 2009 as cited in Kirkgöz 2011). Additionally, according to Kurt (2011) as cited in Diyyab et al (2013), the incorporation of multimedia programs including some multimedia instructional materials such as, graphics, videos and audios has widely benefited learning and teaching. In general, this use of multimedia programs in pedagogy has increased active participation among students, fostered the quality of the learning outcome and offered opportunities for learners to have control over their learning time and place. Accordingly, utilizing video-recordings particularly in second and foreign language pedagogy is not impossible.

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Video recordings are the products of a technological device. Swaffar and Vlatten (1997) as cited in Shrosbree (2008) defines video as a “multi-sensory medium”. A multi-sensory medium means a medium which involves sight and hearing. Differently from audio-recordings, videos offer visual aids assisting the viewers to understand, learn, and remember better. In agreement with Swaffar and Vlatten (1997), Shrosbree (2008) states that “videos allow learners to see the context of the discourse and the speaker’s body language as well as other visual aids to comprehension”. For example, listening to an English lesson aired in a radio station can lead to incomprehensibility. What the listeners do is forming the idea in their mind about what the lesson could be like. The result of this act of forming could swerve from what the lesson is intending. Using videos can avoid this misconception or misinterpretation.

Video-recordings are made for different purposes. Particularly in language classrooms, videos are made to help teacher to explain the lesson and facilitate the students to learn. Shrosbree (2008) introduces three types of video that can be used in language learning: teacher-made videos, student-made videos, and assessment videos. First, teacher-made videos are created to help their students in learning. Videos allow teachers to prepare clear models of what students are expected to do in classroom activities. For instance, a teacher may cooperate with other teachers to create a video demonstration of how a certain activity must be done since the students will not understand if the teacher only gives an oral instruction. Teachers can also create videos for content-based instruction (CBI) which suit their students. Second, the examples of student-made videos can be in the form of making movie projects which require them to work based on an

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arranged plan and for a large amount of time to make an impressive finished product. In a smaller scope, the students videotape their own speaking performance in classroom which does not need a large amount of time as in making movie projects. The last type of video is assessment video. Assessment videos, considered as documents or archives, are usually used to evaluate and assess students’ productive performance. For instance, teachers can use videos as media to assess students’ speaking performance. By means of videos, they can watch the students’ speaking performance for several times if they are supposed to give a thorough assessment. More favorably, videos do not require teachers to give immediate assessment compared to live speaking assessment. More to the points, video-recordings aid teachers to keep track of students’ progress in speaking. Teachers might also use video-recorded portfolios of students’ speaking assignments. As the storage space is enormous in CDs, DVDs and computers, a product could be saved and searched for easily using this type of media.

In this study, the researcher focused on student-made videos to facilitate speaking accuracy and fluency. Several studies on the use of video-recordings in language teaching and learning have been conducted, such as Hirschel, Yamamoto, and Lee (2012), Christianson, Hoskins and Watanabe (2009), Kirkgöz (2011), Yamkate and Intratat (2012), Guo (2013), and Tsang and Wong (2002). These studies affirm that video-recordings bring positive outcomes, such as promoting students’ speaking skills and enhancing students’ presentation or public speaking skills.

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3. The Nature of Video-Recordings-Facilitated Class

The success of the use of video-recordings in bringing positive learning outcome is because its application offers several characteristics which are beneficial for second and foreign language learning, particularly in learning speaking. As cited in Kırkgöz (2011: 2), integrating video-recording of student speaking in language learning offers several advantages:

Video-recordings allow learners to self-correct their own speech since they can see and watch themselves in the video. Lewis (2002) argues that learners do not easily forget once they are able to discover their own mistakes. Thus, self-correction possibly builds learners’ awareness of not making the same mistakes in the future. Even, students may become self-critical as they are encouraged to analyze their language problems. She also adds that self correction can grow learners’ independence. Teachers can be considered as the main language resource for learners, but learners themselves can be. Scharle and Szabo (2005) affirm that learners’ own efforts are important in order to progress. Self-correction can be regarded as an effort to learn something where learners make errors work for them. More to the point, Scharle and Szabo (2005) say that making effort in learning develops learners’ responsibility which subsequently leads to autonomy. Similarly, Harmer (2007) asserts that the students’ attempt to monitor and judge

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their own language production is likely to enhance learning since teachers help them to develop the awareness of how well they have done.

Monitoring and judging one’s own language or self correction is actually one of metacognitive learning strategies. Brown (2004) mentions that self-monitoring, correcting one’s speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, belongs to metacognitive strategies. Teaching learners with learning strategies brings not only learning progress, but also autonomy. Harmers (2007) and Scharle and Szabo (2005) suggests that developing learners’ own learning strategy or training learners’ learning strategies can make them become autonomous learners. Correspondingly, Benson (2011) overtly points out that self-assessment is an example of classroom-based approaches which brings students to autonomy.

In addition to self-correction, video-recordings provide an opportunity for the learners to learn interactively. Based on Vygotsky (1978), learning is more than just an individual process, but a social process where the learners communicate or share their knowledge with others; therefore, new knowledge and understanding are constructed. Watching other’s speaking performance through videos called peer-feedback is one of examples of learning interactively. Murphy (1986:146) states that “correction does not have to come from the teacher alone, for in communication activities it will come just as appropriately (if not more so) from fellow learners.” In addition, Wachob (2011) points out that video-recordings enable peer feedback which undoubtedly enhances motivation. In line with Wachob, Harmer (2007) also states that learners may not be able to help and give motivation to other learners only through individualized learning. The motivation arises possibly because when one student is lack of language

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knowledge and needs helping, the other student can assist; therefore, eagerness of knowing or learning more from a friend who knows more emerges. Students who are considered to know more feel that they actually can bring contribution towards their friends’ progress. In other words, learning with other learners is required since a well-known saying says ‘two heads are better than one’ as what Pearce,et al (2009) argue that when students are engaged through peer review, more different views are exposed.

Peer feedback can reflect cooperative learning as it requires interaction between one student with another student. As cited by Richards and Rodgers (2003: 192), Olsen and Kagan (1992) define cooperative leaning as “a group learning activity that is organized so that learning is dependent on the social structure, exchange information between learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others.” The statement clearly clarifies that cooperative learning benefits learners since learning in groups generates more ideas and exposes different points of view which is to enrich their own knowledge and the knowledge of others. One who does not know may ask someone who knows. They are learning how to work together in the classroom and how to be independent learners as the students themselves play roles as the sources of the information and information seekers. It agrees with what Harmer (2007) suggests that learning with others can promote learner independence. Peer-feedback trains the students to be critical in analysis, too. More importantly, learning with others is an example of learning strategies, particularly socioaffective strategies. As discussed formerly, encouraging learners to fervently apply learning strategies in

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their learning helps them become autonomous. As well, Benson (2011) argues that various kinds of collaborative work in groups or pairs have also been viewed as beneficial to the development of autonomy. Briefly, peer-feedback can definitely be one example of learning activities enhancing autonomy.

Video-recordings allow learners to get self-corrections and peer-feedback which challenge their independence. However, teachers’ corrections are still necessary since Harmer (2007) claims that one of teachers’ roles is as resource. Lewis (2002) mentions two ways of giving feedback by teachers, namely collective feedback and conferencing feedback. Classically, teachers prefer giving collective feedback since it saves times. Nonetheless, some students with learning difficulty perhaps need more help to be able to make the feedback work for them. Some students could have no ideas about the feedback and needs further explanation. Another type of giving feedback is conferencing feedback. It is one-to-one consultation in which learners sit together with the teacher and have the discussion on the students’ work. Conferencing feedback provides learners with individual attention from the teacher and greater chance to ask questions related to the feedback. Harmer (2007) states that a teacher should be able to act as a tutor who provides students with a personal contact.

Although teachers are regarded as the main language source for the students, teachers giving feedback had better not explain everything in detail. Prompting occasionally the students to identify their own weaknesses makes them learn. Teaching students in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) makes students learn better (Rezaee and Azizi, 2012). ZPD is the area between the level of potential development (the level where students are not able to do independently,

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but able to do under guidance) and the level of actual development (the level where students can do independently). In other words, ZPD is the area where students receive instruction or are being guided in learning. Therefore, when teaching language skills in the students’ ZPD, teachers should be able to identify the area where they need guidance.

Regarding feedback, video-recordings provide the accuracy, objectiveness, and specifics of the corrections. Video-recordings surely assist learners to see the exact part where they have made errors and decide which areas should be improved. The precision of locating learners’ errors can be obtained as video recordings provide adequate time for evaluation as they can stop, rewind, pause, and re-start the videos several times according to their needs. Christianson et al

(2009) argue that the use of video recordings allows both students and teachers to do thorough or accurate evaluation on the various aspects of performance as they can watch the video as many times as necessary.

In speaking, teachers typically list the learners’ errors write learners’ errors on paper which is later given to them. However, teachers possibly miss some language problems to assess or even they forget what to correct after the students’ speech has finished. Harmer (2007) mentions that giving feedback after the event can be problematic since teachers are likely to easily forget what the students have said. Besides, learners are likely to be skeptical, a feeling of unbelieving that they actually have made the errors, when they read the feedback. Therefore, video-recordings help teachers to find the overlooked language problems that need correcting and anticipate when teachers prefer giving correction after the event. Also, the learners are able to watch the video, especially the parts where the errors

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exist and later decide how to refine them. Shrosbree (2008) asserts that video-recordings enhance the validity and reliability of language assessment and facilitate to discover areas learners need to improve.

Additionally, video-recordings can be convenient media to give feedback or correction which prevents teachers’ interruption. Not few teachers sometimes give excessive feedback or correction when learners are still performing speech. This way of giving corrections are certainly disruptive causing absent-mindedness about what to say next. Consequently, learners are not able to optimally express the organized ideas. Moreover, anxious and failing students will feel even worse as starting speak is already a very hard work. Harmer (2007) mentions that one of the problems is teachers’ over-correction while the students are speaking which is likely to impede the students’ speaking. He adds that teacher’s intervention might raise students’ level of stress.

Indeed, teachers are often dilemmatic when students are involved in fluency work. When they make accuracy errors, teachers feel that they necessarily have to point out and correct the errors immediately. However, teachers had better not to do such interruption during fluency work since the students will frequently stop which fails fluency acquisition. Harmer (2007: 143) argues that “during communication activities, however, it is generally felt that teachers should not interrupt students in mid-flow to point out a grammatical, lexical or pronunciation error, since to do so interrupts the communication and drags an activity back to the study of language form or precise meaning.” For that reason, video-recordings can facilitate teachers who would prefer to give immediate feedback in the student’s mid-flow, but do not want to impede fluency.

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kita bisa mengetahui yang salah apa saja dan waktu di rekam lagi bisa dibandingkan jika di awal salah maka yang kedua benar atau tidak.

auditory immediacy, feedback preciseness AL AL 40 Yang pertama sesuatu yang baru, berbicara bahasa

inggris yang baik, kemudahan-kemudahan buat mengevaluasi kesalahan-kesalahan accuracy sama fluency.

AL AL 41 Lebih mudah mengevaluasi dengan menggunakan video Miss. Ya seperti saya bilang sebelumnya, kita bisa ngelihat ulang dan bisa tau letak salahnya dimana. Karena dengan melihat video, kita ngeliat kesalahan kita makanya kita bisa belajar lagi, kalau kita tidak tahu kesalahan bagaimana kita bisa belajar lagi. Ya gampangannya, kalo enggak ada video kan kita udah lupa tadi kita ngomongnya gimana ya. Kan jadi enggak tau apa yang musti diperbaiki.

AL AL 46 Paham, miss. Ya lebih suka pake-video, Miss. Kalo gurunya selalu koreksi pas kita ngomong itu malah jadi lupa yang mau diomongin.

AR AR 32 Pake video, miss. Kadang suka rancu kalo dikoreksi terus pas ngomong. Kalo pake video kan nanti toh juga bakal diputer juga. Jadinya enggak bikin kita..apa ya..gaguk.

AR AR 33 Kalau semangat belajar bertambah, karena kalau melihat media ada hiburannya tidak seperti

membaca dan dengerin dosen ngomong terus bosan Miss dan kalau melihat video bisa menghibur dan mudah di pahami.

AR AR 34 Kalau detail iya Miss, rinci juga iya.

AR AR 37 Iya, detail dalam artian karena di video recording kita bisa mengetahui letak salahnya, kalau tidak memakai video bisa beda lagi Miss. Intinya kita tu dikasih liat “Ini kamu kurangnya disini nih.”

(2)

The students’ speaking transcripts are presented to give evidence of the students’ speaking accuracy and fluency improvement. Here, the researcher will compare the students’ speaking transcripts of the pre-test and post-test, analyze, and describe how their accuracy and fluency became better. Two samples of speaking transcripts from the experimental group are taken. The first speaking transcript is taken from the high achiever. The high achiever is the student who has got good score in the post-test. The other one is taken from the low achiever. The low achiever is the student who has got bad score in the post-test. The scoring system is based on the IELTS speaking rubrics (See Appendix 02). The accuracy is scored based on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, whereas fluency is scored based on speed rate, delivery (the speech smoothness with no infrequent occurrence of pauses and hesitations), and intelligibility of the language. However, the researcher will only analyze parts of the transcripts.

a. High achiever

The high achiever is the student who has got high post-test score. The first transcript is about dream job and favorite job and the second one is about past experience. The transcripts are presented as follows:

PRE-TEST

Actually I want to be a doctor./ Because, aaaa, I have an accident, accident in the last time./ I have one sepupu./ I have one brother, brother in law, and he was died, d-died, aaaaaa, about, aaaa, five years ago I think./ Aaaa, he is, eh he was die because, aaaaa, doctor let to cure, to cure him./ So I think I want to be doctor for help many people./

(3)

I choose actor and actress./ Maybe because if we, if we, we are to be, aaa, actress or actor, uuhh, if we are in the entertainment world, we can get many benefit, for example we can get money./ We can get very, uuh, many money, much money I mean, much money and we get popularity and then we, we can travelling to many place if we are doing shooting./ Shooting./ Yes something like that./

The first transcript of post-test shows several improvements. In the pre-test, the student produced simple sentences, whereas in the post test, compound and complex sentences occurred (the underlined sentences). In the post test, the student managed to fix the wrong usage of adverb of quantity ‘many’ to ‘much’ as she realized that money is an uncountable noun. Mostly, the sentences produced in the post-test have correct subject-verb agreement. The vocabulary is greater in the post-test. Although some hesitations and pauses occur in the speech delivery, they did not appear to impede the meaning. In the pre-test, the use of incorrect connector impedes the meaning, whereas in the post-test the message is comprehensively and clearly conveyed.

PRE-TEST

Uuumm, in, when I was, when I was about five years old, I have many experience about holiday with my family./ With my father, with my mother, with my younger brother and with my grandmother./ Uuuh actually my father very like traveling, so he always, uuuhh he always accompanying me to many place for example toKebun Binatang, zoo, zoo, to the zoo./ Aaaa I think aaa, I, I’m very happy when he accompanying me to be, to the many place especially zoo, because, aaaaa, I remember when he, he, apa ya,pake bahasa Indonesia boleh miss? Uuuh when he, ap-apa, when he accompanying me to naik, naik kuda, apa ya itu, uuhhmenunggangihorse./ And see many animals./ uuhh, In the zoo, uuh, uuhh, he always tell me about wha-what, what the animal is and my father is uuuff-forest, forest management in one of itu university./ So he know many, many, many many animal many plant, uuh, so he, he is very, he like to tell me about this./ And then, uuuhhh, my father, aaaaaa, sometimes my father, uummm, accompanying me to swimming in the river./ Yeah because, aaaa, the river in my, uuh, house is not dirty./ Something like that.

(4)

POST TEST

Uuuh I want to tell you about my story when I was traveling to Yogyakarta./ It is u-uh when, when the first time I, I, I am in here in Yogyakarta./ It was three years ago./ uuuhh, it is when I was third grade after, after Ujian Nasional./ After Ujian Nasional, I go to UMY for doing, uuhh, some test, aaaa./ I go, I went to Yogyakarta for doing test in UMY and in UII./ I, I choose uuuhhh, medical faculty and health science and I want to be a doctor actually, uuhh, but I, I can’t./ I can’t pass the test in UMY and UII./ I was so sad, uuhh, when I can’t to be a doctor./ But, uuhh, uhh, I am very happy when I visit Yogyakarta for the first time because, uuh, I went to some place in Yogyakarta./ uuh, I went to Malioboro and I went to Parangtritis beach./ In Malioboro I took a picture with my mother, with my father and with my younger brother./ And then I bought, I bought many things./ I bought skirt./ I bought batik./ I bought uuhhh, so many things because in my place in Bogor, uuh, aaa, the thing is more expen, expensive, more expensive than in Jogja./ So I bought many, many things and my mother bought many things too and then we went to Parangtritis beach, just for took a picture and then my younger brother is uuuhh, she-she like to take, to take picture so she- she walking the beach./ She took many picture and I was very happy.

The second transcript of post-test obviously shows improvements as in the first transcript. The student has made a very good progress in using past verbs in the post-test (the underlined sentences). Differently, the student hardly used past verbs in the pre-test when telling her past experience. In the post-test, almost no code-switch occurred which hindered the speech delivery. Besides, no word repetitions obstructed the intelligibility of the language. On the other hand, in the pre-test, the student produced lengthy code-switch since she did not know the vocabulary as shown in the following sentence ‘I remember when he, he, apa ya, pake bahasa Indonesia boleh miss? Uuuh when he, ap-apa, when he accompanying me to naik, naik kuda, apa ya itu, uuhh menunggangi horse.’ Moreover, the student repeated the same words frequently which gives an

(5)

b. Low achiever

The low achiever is the student who has got low post-test score. However, the student’s speaking performance shows improvement. The first transcript is about job comparison and the second one is about past experience. The transcripts are presented as follows:

PRE-TEST

Doctor and nurse uuh, same, uuhh, sama-sama, uuhh, seb, uuh, profesi, but, uuhh, doctor in cure and medica-medica-medication, and nurse in care./ Nah, uuh, so, but, eh, but, uuh, people think if nurse ispembantuof doctor./ Na-uuh, I start to uuh, change their think about this, uuh./ I ingin membuktikan, uuh if nurse ismitra,mitraof doctor./ Partner of doctor./

POST-TEST

Uuuh, accountant uuuh, accountant uuuh, working uuuh, to-uuh to be relate uuum, number, number and some./ And secretary uuuh, the job uuh, to be relate uum, work and computer, and uuh./ I think accountant more difficult than secretary because accountant uuh, uuhhm bring, bring money other people./ Oh and secretary just make uuuh, uuhm make report and but, but need but uuh become a secretary need creativity and uuuh, uuuh, fast, fast in work./ Uuh I think that because I don’t know again about job./

The first transcript clearly shows that frequent code-switches are found, while in the post-test no code-switches are found. Consequently, the speech delivery was not fluent and the frequent occurrence of code-switches affected the intelligibility of the language.

PRE-TEST

In junior high school, me and class, eh, and friend in class, very uuh, have, uuh, kekeluargaan./ Yeah, so uuhh, we uuh, do something together and have fun, uuh, like we ever uuh, play in, indanau?lake, danau, eee, but uuhh, not, not beautiful view./ But uuhh, kebersamaan me and friend in who make me uuhh, always, always remember./ Because uuuh, uuuh, we uuh susah diungkapin dengan kata-kata, uumm, we and friend uuh, never, never look you, you rich or no but have fun, have fun and uuh, accept each other./ Uuuh,

(6)

all every friend become uhh, become brother, uuhh, bestfriend, family, uuhs all, all,semuanya, bisa menjadi semuanya./ uuh, so I very miss with my friend in junior high, junior high school because my friend in uuh, Pangkalan Bun city in Borneo center./ Uuh, ee now, uuh, we, uuh, have different visi-vision, so, uuuh, but we always, always, apa ya, selalu, apa ya, saling give motivation./ You in, you uuhh, I have, I have friends uuh, five, we uuh, lima pokoknya lima teman baikuuh,we all, uuh, differentjurusan./

POST-TEST

Uuuh, when I uuh, birthday, I, I went to Wonosobo with my friend./ And uuh we do not we didn’t uuh street to, street to Wonosobo and we, we spend, we spend time in street to, to, to facing with some people in street./ And we, we question with polite, police uuh but, but uuh, the finish we, we uuh, wesampai ke the, the place in home, home my friend./ And uuh in home my friend we, we uuh rest, rest./ The next, we went to Dieng and uuh Telaga Warna, nah, and uuh we, we take picture and, and uuh enjoy the view./ uuh When we uuh, go home eh went, went to home we uuh ten o’clock in Jogja uuh ha-most, most uuh, most don’t tidak sampai rumah, nyasar, because uuh, situation in, in morning and night very different./ So uuh just, ju-just one take, sekali bel-salah belok langsung nyasar. Something like that, but we, we come back to, to streetsemula./ We, we question again with some people./ Like that./

The pre-test and post-test in the second transcript contain code-switches. However, the number of code-switches in the post-test is fewer than in the pre-test. Similarly, the frequent occurrence of code-switches in the pre-test significantly affected the message delivery. The student seemed to chaotically narrate the story. The student did not seem to narrate her past experience. In the post test, the speech delivery appeared more coherent. The story of past experience was coherently better narrated. Besides, unlike the pre-test, the post-test contained past verbs although they occurred inconsistently.

Facilitating students` speaking accuracy and fluency through video recordings.

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FACILITATING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING ACCURACY AND

FLUENCY THROUGH VIDEO RECORDINGS

A THESIS

A THESIS

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN

AKADEMIS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF APPENDICES

ABSTRACT

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