Speech Errors in Interviews of Metro TV’S INDONESIA THIS MORNING News Program

SPEECH ERRORS IN INTERVIEWS OF METRO TV’S INDONESIA THIS MORNING NEWS PROGRAM

A THESIS

BY:

IVAN C H LUMBANTOBING Reg. No. 050705057

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA FACULTY OF LETTERS

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT MEDAN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, the writer would like to praise and give the greatest honor only to Heavenly Father the Almighty God in the name of Jesus Christ who loves him by giving His blessings, guidance, and joy to finish this thesis on time.

This thesis is about the speech error analysis that found in Interviews on Metro TV’s INDONESIA THIS MORNING News Program.

The writer would like to say thanks to some incredible lecturers who helped him to write this thesis as it now appears. They whom the writer shall thank are:

1. Prof. Syaiffudin, M. A, Ph. D as the Dean of Faculty of Letters USU

2. Drs. Swesana Lubis, M. Hum as the Head of English Department and Drs. Yulianus Harefa, M. Ed TESOL as the Secretary.

3. Dr. Syahron Lubis, M. A as the writer’s Supervisor and Dr. Eddy Setia, M.Ed TESP as the writer’s Co-Supervisor for the precious advices, supporting assistance and understanding that motivated him to finish this thesis.

4. Dra. Nurcahaya Bangun, M. Si as the writer’s Academic Supervisor for the encouragement during his study in English Department.

The writer’s great thanks must also go to all his brother and sisters in “Praise The Lord”: Timbul, Shera, Monalisa and Mafe who always support him with their love, care, and attention. Thank you for everything that we have shared through all these years. May God Bless you all!

The writer also thanks to all the brothers in his lovely small group: Andolin, Budi, Frandy, Handani, and Johan who always remind and support him to finish this thesis.

Thanks also should be awarded to the writer’s dearest girl Grace for her love and prayers to help him in finishing of this thesis. She has become an inspiration and strength for him to finish his study. God be with you!

The writer will never forget to thank his incredibly loving, supportive, and great family, his father in Heaven Sahat Mangapul Lumbantobing and also his lovely mother Blandina Hutabarat. The writer dedicates this thesis to them for they are the definition of inspiration. The writer knows that they must be proud of him as their only son. Especially, special thanks for the writer’s mother that had struggled and prayed for him as long as he finished this thesis. She is the great mother that the writer ever had in his life. The writer also thanks to his sweetest sisters Diana and Juniar for their loving, caring, and kindness that encourage him to finish thesis. The writer will always love you all forever more.

Last but not least, the writer would like to say thank to all his friends whose names cannot put in this thesis. They will be in his heart. Thanks a lot for everything that they have done for him. Finally, the writer hopes this thesis will always be beneficial for all the readers.

Medan, June 2009

Ivan Lumbantobing

ABSTRAK

Skripsi ini berjudul Speech Errors in Interviews of Metro TV’S INDONESIA THIS MORNING News Program, yang merupakan suatu analisis mengenai

kesalahan pengucapan yang dibuat reporter dan bintang tamu dalam wawancara bahasa Inggris di Metro TV. Tujuan dari analisis ini adalah untuk mengetahui serta mengamati kesalahan pengucapan apa saja yangt dibuat oleh reporter maupun bintang tamu karena pemirsa televise sering tidak menyadari kesalahan pengucapan yang dilakukan oleh reporter dan bintang tamu. Analisis kesalahan pengucapan dalam skripsi ini mencoba mengamati setiap jenis kedalahan pengucapan yang dibuat oleh reporter dan bintang tamu seperti: silent pause, filled pause, retraced false

starts, unretraced false starts, repeat, correction, interjection, stutter, dan slip of the tongue. Dari hasil analisis tersebut ditemukan bahwa kesalahan pengucapan yang

dilakukan reporter dan bintang tamu adalah 243 buah yang terdiri atas 9 jenis kesalahan pengucapan sesuai dengan teori Clark(1977). Berikut adalah kesalahan pengucapan berdasarkan jumlah dan persentasenya: Silent Pause 38 kali (15,63%),

Filed Pause 85 kali (34,97%), Retraced False Start 2 kali (0,8%), Unretraced False Start 1 kali (0,4%), Repeat 67 kali (27,57%), Stutter 22 kali (9,05%), Correction 8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... i

ABSTRAK ... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... iv

I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Analysis ... 1

1.2 Scope of Analysis ... 3

1.3 Problems of Analysis ... 4

1.4 Objective of Analysis ... 5

1.5 Significance of Analysis ... 5

1.6 Review of Related Literature ... 6

II. AN OVERVIEW OF SPEECH PRODUCTION AND SPEECH ERRORS 2.1 The Relationship between Linguistics and Psycholinguistics ... 7

2.2 Competence and Performance ... 10

2.3 Speech Planning and Execution ... 12

2.4 The Classification and Description of Speech Errors ... 14

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Method ... 22

3.2 The Population and Sample ... 22

3.4 Method of Analyzing Data ... 24

III. THE ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ERRORS

4.1 Types of Errors Made by the Reporter and Guest Stars in the Interviews of INDONESIA THIS MORNING News Program on Metro TV. ... 25

4.2 Reporter and Guest Star’s Factors of Making Errors ... 50 4.3 The Tips to Minimize in Making Errors ... 50

V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusions ... 51 5.2 Suggestions ... 52

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABSTRAK

Skripsi ini berjudul Speech Errors in Interviews of Metro TV’S INDONESIA THIS MORNING News Program, yang merupakan suatu analisis mengenai

kesalahan pengucapan yang dibuat reporter dan bintang tamu dalam wawancara bahasa Inggris di Metro TV. Tujuan dari analisis ini adalah untuk mengetahui serta mengamati kesalahan pengucapan apa saja yangt dibuat oleh reporter maupun bintang tamu karena pemirsa televise sering tidak menyadari kesalahan pengucapan yang dilakukan oleh reporter dan bintang tamu. Analisis kesalahan pengucapan dalam skripsi ini mencoba mengamati setiap jenis kedalahan pengucapan yang dibuat oleh reporter dan bintang tamu seperti: silent pause, filled pause, retraced false

starts, unretraced false starts, repeat, correction, interjection, stutter, dan slip of the tongue. Dari hasil analisis tersebut ditemukan bahwa kesalahan pengucapan yang

dilakukan reporter dan bintang tamu adalah 243 buah yang terdiri atas 9 jenis kesalahan pengucapan sesuai dengan teori Clark(1977). Berikut adalah kesalahan pengucapan berdasarkan jumlah dan persentasenya: Silent Pause 38 kali (15,63%),

Filed Pause 85 kali (34,97%), Retraced False Start 2 kali (0,8%), Unretraced False Start 1 kali (0,4%), Repeat 67 kali (27,57%), Stutter 22 kali (9,05%), Correction 8

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background

The scientific study of a language is called Linguistics while the people who specialize their research on language is called Linguist. The word linguistics is derived from the Latin Lingua, which means language. It is to describe and explain the structure of language used by a group of people, but what we are talking here is apparently about general language in detail.

Linguistics itself is divided into two parts known as macro and micro linguistics. Macro Linguistics deals with the relation of the language with all the aspects beyond of the language itself. For example: social factors, psychology, anthropology, and neurology. Meanwhile Micro Linguistics deals with the internal structure of language like the structure of phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon.

Psycholinguistics itself is included in macro linguistics. The word of

Psycholinguistics is formed by two words mainly Psychology and Linguistics. Both

of them are different but they have similarity that concern with language as the formal object. However, the objects of material between Psychology and Linguistics are different. Linguistics deals with the structure of language while Psychology concern with the process or behaviour of the people in using language.

Some of linguists have made their own definitions of psycholinguistics in different points of view:

Lackanger in (Umar and Napitupulu: 36) cites: “Psycholinguistics is the study of language acquisition and lingusitc behaviour, as well as the psychological

mechanism responsible for them.” The definition above emphasizes on the limitation of language acquisition and linguistic behaviour. The acquisition of language is closely concerned with the language learning, otherwise, linguistic behaviour relates to the process of competence and performance. The process of competence and performance are at all times, with other words, the mechanism of psychology has a very important role.

Hartlet in (Umar and Napitupulu: 35) cites: “Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language in mind in processing and producing utterances and language acquisition.” What we can take in this statement in how acquisition of language works. It is the process of how can we get known the process occurs and it has meaningful unit, which furthermore can be understood by hearer.

Stern (1983: 296) cites: “Psycholinguistics deals directly with the process of encoding and decoding as they relate states of message to state communicators.” This definition stresses on the process of encoding and understanding to the codes delivered between speaker and listener. These processes, decoding and encoding take place in human mind. The speaker and listeners hold an important role in this case. The speaker delivers his or her messages in codes, later on, the listener will try to perceive the meaning codes. That is the reason why it needs mutual understanding between speaker and listener.

Whether it is viewed from psychology and linguistics, these elements cannot be separated from each other. Since it is based upon these elements, we can see that speaker may be successful in their speech. They can know their weakness further; they can develop their knowledge especially in speaking. Automatically, their

audience will be interested in their speech. This is the tool of a speaker to give some influence their audience when giving them information.

As the topic is related to psycholinguistics, so the writer would like to tell a little bit about psycholinguistics in the next chapter.

From this statement, the writer tries to identify speech errors. The writer wants to analyze the speech errors made by the Reporter and Guest Stars of “INDONESIA THIS MORNING” News Program.

1.2 Scope of Analysis

It is a reality that most of the people in the world like watching television so much, for television is a set of tools or an audio-visual medium of communication. It is an interesting problem to know what will happen further. Television has many interesting programs such as: education, entertainment, news program, quiz, variety of shows, etc.

The scope that the writer wants to view is about interview spoken by the Reporters and Guest Stars on “INDONESIA THIS MORNING” News Program. This programme always is watched by us, but we rarely realize whether or not they make some errors in speech.

Considering the reason above, the writer wants to find out speech errors that may occur in the interviews by Reporter and Guest Stars. The writer was convinced that such speech errors made by Reporter and Guest Stars of “INDONESIA THIS MORNING” News Program are interesting matters to reveal and solve, and would be beneficial for us as linguists and also for those who are concerned and involved in broadcasting.

1.3 Problems of Analysis

In most crucial human activities, success depends on knowledge, skill, and self-confidence. There are some characteristics which form the basis of effective speech. Without the knowledge, the speeches become empty or even are not successful. Without skill, expression is often crude or monotonous: and without self-confidence, the speaker stumbles and lacks of power. Considering these, the writer saw some problems that appeared in an interview. They were:

1. The kinds of the speech errors made in the interviews on INDONESIA THIS MORNING News Program.

2. How often they produce errors in their speech.

3. The Reporter and Guest Star’s factors that make speech errors. 4. The tips for reducing the speech errors.

Those problems can be formulated as follow:

1. What kinds of the speech errors are found in the interviews? 2. How often do they produce errors in their speech?

3. What are the Reporter and Guest Star’s factors of making errors? 4. What are the tips for reducing speech errors?

1.4 Objectives of Analysis

Concerning with the questions raised dealing with speech errors in the interviews and related to psycholinguistics, the writer have proposed some objectives as follows:

1. To identify the kinds of speech errors made by the Reporter and Guest Stars of “INDONESIA THIS MORNING” News Program on Metro TV

2. To tabulate the frequency of each kind of speech error made in the interviews

3. To find the factors that made the errors by Reporter and Guest Stars 4. To propose some tips for reducing speech errors

1.5 Significance of Analysis

It is expected that this study will be beneficial for those who are interested in knowing speech errors that can be found in interviews of news program on television. Thus some significance expected to reach are as follows:

1. The readers will get more and more explanations about psycholinguistics particularly on speech errors in interviews.

2. The readers will know the kinds of errors which are often made in interviews and how often they occur

3. To show the readers that to be a Reporter or a Guest Star is not such an easy thing for he/she has to practice well and increase his/her communication skill regularly.

1.6 Review of Related Literature

In completing this thesis, the writer has consulted some references concerned with the topic to support the ides of analysis. Those references are:

Psycholinguistics, A Second language Perspective by Hatch (1983). This book helps the writer to know how the Psycholinguistics becomes a discipline of knowledge.

The Psychology of Language by Fodor (1974). This book gives some information to the writer about relationship between language and Psychology.

The Acquisition of Language: The Study of Development Psycholinguistics by Mc Neill (1970). This book contains some information about the possibility of speech errors by human. This book is also helpful for the writer.

A Study of Speech Errors Made by MTV Asia VJ in Presenting the Music Program by Handayani (2000). This thesis gives some information about speech errors that made by a presenter.

An Analysis of Speech Errors Made by Announcers of “Gita Gets Moving” English Program by Budiarti (2006). This thesis gives some information about speech errors that made by announcers on English Program.

An Analysis of Speech Errors Made by Debaters of English Debate Competition at the 25th Anniversary of IMSI USU by Malau (2007). This thesis gives some information about speech errors that made by students.

Psychology and Language: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics by Clark and Clark (1977). This book provides coverage of such important areas as the production of language, the representation and use of meaning and the relation of psychology process to language universals that broaden the writer knowledge especially through the explanations of the types of speech errors. This book is really beneficial for the writer in identifying and classifying the common speech errors. These are nine classifying the common speech errors that are going to be analyzed in this thesis, they are: silent pause, filled pause, false starts (unretraced), false starts (retraced), repeat, correction, interjection, stutter, slip of the tongue with its subtypes.

CHAPTER II

AN OVERVIEW OF SPEECH PRODUCTION AND SPEECH

ERRORS

2.1 The Relationship between Linguistics and Psycholinguistics

The scientific study of language is called Linguistics, while the people who focus their research on language are called linguists.

The word Linguistics derived from the Latin lingua, which means language. It is to describe and explain the structure of language used by a group of people but what we are talking here is apparently about general linguistics, which generally studies about language in detail. Linguistics itself is divided into two parts known as macro and micro linguistics.

Psycholinguistics is a field that combines methods and theories from psychology and linguistics to derive a fuller understanding of human language. From psychology, it inherits experimental methodology and a body of knowledge about process in perception, memory, attention, learning, and problem solving. From linguistics, it derives detailed descriptions of specific languages, rigorous accounts of the shape of grammar, and ideas about the nature of human language. The basic issue that motivated the establishment of psycholinguistics as a separate field of the study was the problem of the ‘psychological reality’ of linguistic concepts. For example, speakers of English can form the plural of noun by adding the suffix-s. This process allows us to form the plural chandeliers from chandelier. But do we actually use a productive rule to produce this plural or do we simply retrieve the plural chandeliers

both rote and rule are operative at various times in language production (Pinker: 1999).

Some of linguists have made their own definitions of Psycholinguistics in different points of view:

Lackanger in (Umar and Napitupulu: 36) cites: “Psycholinguistics is the studyof language acquisition and lingusitc behaviour, as well as the psychological mechanism responsible for them.” The definition above emphasizes on the limitation between language acquisition and linguistic behaviour. The acquisition of language is closely concerned with the language learning, otherwise, linguistics behaviour relates to the process of competence and performance. The process of competence and performance are at all times, with other words, the mechanism of psychology has a very important role.

Stern (1983: 296) cites: “Psycholinguistics deals directly with the process of encoding and decoding as they relate states of message to state communicators.” This definition stresses on the process of encoding and understanding to the codes delivered between speaker and listener. These processes, decoding and encoding take place in human mind. The speaker and listeners hold an important role in this case. The speaker delivers his or her messages in codes, later on, the listener will try to perceive the meaning codes. That is the reason why it needs mutual understanding between speaker and listener.

Diebold (Slama, 1973: 39) cites: “Psycholinguistics is concerned in the broadest sense with relation between messages and the characteristics of human individuals who select and interpret them.” Psycholinguistics is the broadest sense

simply talks about relationship between messages delivered and human characteristics in selecting and interpreting these messages.

Paul Fraisse (Slama, 1973) cites: “Psycholinguistics is the study of relation between our need for expression and communication and the means offered to us by a language in one’s childhood and later. “In this way, the limitation emphasizes on the relationship between our need of expression in communication and all the things offered to us through language that we have been learning in our life.

Hartlet in (Umar and Napitupulu: 35) cites: “Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language in mind in processing and producing utterances and language acquisition.” What we can take from this statement is how acquisition of language works. It is the process of how we can get known the process that occurs and it has meaningful unit, which furthermore can be understood by hearer.

After having collected some linguists’ views on Psycholinguistics, we can further have some ideas on that. These ideas can be such important and even crucial in discussing about psycholinguistics. It can be summarized as follows:

1. Psycholinguistics is actually a study that talks about the relationship between language and human mind.

2. Psycholinguistics emphasizes on the language acquisition and linguistic behaviour.

3. Psycholinguistics is closely concerned with decoding and encoding process, in other words, it relates to the process of selecting and interpreting the codes. 4. Psycholinguistics examines language change, language knowledge, and language

5. Psycholinguistics talks about the process which occurs between the hearer and the speaker concerning with language.

As mentioned earlier psycholinguistics discusses the process of how people produce language. In interpreting a language, people generally have and follow a set of accepted rules that is concerned with sounds and meanings. If we want to perceive the meanings of listening and speaking, we get perceive also the meaning of relation between language structure and the process of listening and speaking. The accepted rules of language structure are usually called Grammar.

Grammar helps the study of listening and speaking: therefore, it has been so important for the psychology of language. These rules summarize regularities in the behaviour of people speaking language. Grammatical rules will then lead us toward the understanding of basic law of thought and the nature of human intelligence. Noam Chomsky got to divide this into two. They are competence and performance.

2.2 Competence and Performance

Every speaker of language has tacit knowledge of the grammar of his language. It is likely about tacit knowledge of how to keep a recognized rhythm, how to ride a bike, etc. Grammar is set of principles that govern the formation and interpretation of words, phrase and sentences.

Korrosy (1993) extended the theory of knowledge structures by separating competence and performance. Competence means kills or abilities that enable a person to solve a problem, and cannot be observed directly. Performance is the behaviour, e.g. the answer that is given can be observed.

Of course, competence, demands, and performance are related. However, competences are properties of persons, while demands are properties of problems. While a demand requires a competence to fulfill it, the relationship is not a one to one relation. For example, the demand “add to natural numbers” may be met by adding mentally, by adding with the people of paper and pencil or by operating a pocket calculator. Similarly, when a performance of a person is observed, it is not obvious what underlying competences have contributed to the solution.

Thus Korossy introduced two spaces: a competence space on a set of (elementary) competences, and performance space on a set of items. These spaces have the sane properties as knowledge spaces, and also prerequisite and surmise relation exist. A state in the competence space describes the competences a person has, while a state in the performance space is given by set of items that a person can master.

By identifying the relationship between competence and performance on the items, an interpretation function and a representation function can be defined. The interpretation maps a problem or item to the set of all competence states that allow for the solving problem. Vice versa, the representation maps a competence state to the set of problems, which can mastered with the competence of this state (Korossy, 1993).

Schrepp (1993) goes one step further than Korossy and investigates not only the competences of a person, but also the underlying cognitive processes. A model for these processes also allows deriving the competence structure, and by means of the representation function the performance structure can be obtained. The necessary actions when a new item arises depend on whether the model of the cognitive

processes can we explain how a person masters the item. If so, the new structures can be derived easily. Otherwise, the cognitive model has to be extended which may require further research.

A distinction is introduced by Chomsky (1964) into linguistic theory but of wider application. Competence refers to a speaker’s knowledge of his language as manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which he may have never seen or heard before. Performance refers to the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistics features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language. Competence like organization describes the potentiality of a system. Performance like structure describes the forms actually realized as a subset of the conceivable.

2.3 Speech Planning and Execution

Speaking and listening are two activities of human beings that are sometimes included as basic activities in communication. These activities have become the observation of psychologist purposed for mental activities. We can listen to everyone’s ideas, get particular information to shape up our way of thinking, and make up our ideas through the words, while in speaking, we can freely deliver our ideas into words and expresses our feeling and way of thinking. These activities have become two fundamental things in communication.

In speaking, people can convey some ides, knowledge, and information. That is why speaking is a fundamentally instrumental act. Speaking, therefore, shows up to be divided into two types of activity---planning and execution.

Speaker first plans what they want to say based on how they want to change the mental state of their listeners. They then put their plan into execution, uttering the segments, words, phrases, and sentence that make up plan. The division between planning and execution, however, is not a clean one. At any moment speakers are usually doing a little of both. They are planning what to say next while executing what they had planned moments before. It is impossible to say where planning leaves off and execution begins. Despite these problems, planning and execution are convenient labels for the two end of speech production. The considerations that come into planning an utterance can generally be distinguished from those that go into execution. (Clark: 1977: 224).

Here are some processes of how speech is planned and executed as proposed by Clark (1977: 224). In rough outline the process will simply look like this:

1. Discourse Plans. The first step for the speakers is to decide what kind of

discourse they are participating in. It is the case that they are telling a story, conversing with other people, giving instructions, describing an event, or making a pledge. Each kind of discourse has a different structure, and they must plan their utterances to fit. Each utterance must contribute to the discourse by conveying the correct messages.

2. Sentence Plans. Given the discourse and their intention to produce a sentence

with the correct message, speaker must select one that will do this. They must secede on the speech act, what to put as subject, and given new information, and what to subordinate. They must also decide how they want to convey their messages directly, by means of the literal meaning of a sentence, or directly, by means irony, understatement, or other indirect rhetorical devices.

3. Constituent Plans. Once the speakers decide on the global characteristics of a

sentence, they can begin planning its constituent and put them in the right order. Although they may have planned the global form of sentence, they normally select specific words only phrase by phrase.

4. Articulatory Program. As specific words are chosen , they are formed into an

articulatory program in a memory buffer capable on holding all the words of a plans constituent at once. It contains a representation of the actual phonetic segments, stresses, and intonation pattern that are to be executed at the next step. 5. Articulation, the final step is to execute the contents of the articulatory program.

This is done by mechanism that adds sequence and timing to the articulory program, telling the articulatory program, telling the articulatory muscles what they should do them. This step results in audible sounds, the speech the speaker intended to produce.

2.4 Classification and Description of Speech Errors

Planning and execution, so the evidence suggest, are interleaved in a complex way so that extra planning may lead to delays of execution. In a talk, people always think of what they want to convey and this process involves our articulatory program. The first thing we do is to start the conversation, then pick the correct words, which can express what we are thinking of. In this way, it is the time how we start, what to get involved with, what to omit, and what words are correct to use. When we pass through this process, we may hesitate a lot and get into position of being anxious what to say next after the first utterance. Even thought what we are going to say in our mind, but we may produce speech errors in our speaking.

Based on Clark (1977: 263), common types of speech errors can be seen as follows:

1. Silent Pause

A period no speech between words can be called silent pause. Speed of talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum of such pausing. People who speak slowly hesitate a lot when they speed up their rate words: they do it by eliminating the pauses, not by shortening the words. This kind of speech error is usually symbolized by [//]

e.g. - Please close the//window!

- Don’t put it near the//table!

2. Filled Pause

The filled pause is the next type of speech error. We can hear this kind of error when the period no word between the speeches is filled up by the expression such as “mm”, “ah”, “uh”, “err”, or any others that filled the gap while the speaker is speaking. This second type of speech error is symbolized by […]

e.g. - Please close the, mm, the window!

3. Repeat

This is must be the third type of speech errors. Repeats occur when the speakers repeat one or more words in utterance. When people talk very fast and spontaneously, this kind of speech errors will happen. Repeats can be symbolized by [/]

e.g. - Please close the window / the window!

- Don’t put it near the table / the table!

4. Retraced False Start

Retraced False Start is another type of speech errors. It simply mean the correction of a word. It also includes one or more words before the corrected words. This kind of speech error is symbolizes by [\]

e.g. - Please close the door \ the window!

- Don’t out it near the chair \ the table!

5. Unretraced False Start

The next type of speech errors is Unretraced False Start. It is quite similar to Retraced False Start. It does not include the repetition of one or more words in a sentence before the words that are being corrected. There is no repetition of the words before the corrected words. What we are to do is correcting words to the right ones directly. This type of errors is usually marked by [\\]

e.g. - Please close the door \\ window!

6. Correction

The category of speech error that is called corrections is quite similar to false starts. Something that makes them different is that correction is expressed in explicitly “I mean”, “or rather”, “that is”, or “well” to mark the pharases as a correction. Corrections occur when the speaker’s better utterances to say and then the corrections they make take over the place of previous words, which are considered to be misplanned. This type can be marks why they are breaking their speech. Corrections are symbolizes by [-]

e.g. - Please close the door – I mean the window!

- Don’t put it near the chair – I mean the table!

7. Stutter

Learning to talk is not always easy. Some people have difficulty combining sounds into words. They repeat or prolong the beginning sounds of many words, which is furthermore called a disfluency, because they break up the smooth flow of speech. More specifically a people who has such a disfluency stutters, which by definition, is speech characterized by abnormal hesitations, repetitions, and prolongations that may be accompanied by gestures, grimaces, or other bodily movements indicating a struggle to speak, blocking of speech, anxiety, or avoidance of speech. It is disorder, which we have all heard and recognized, or perhaps even experienced before: it’s the most frequent type of fluency disorder.

According to Fromkin (1995), all individuals are disfluent at times, but what differentiates the person who stutters from someone with normal speech disfluencies is the kind and amount of disfluencies. The average person will have between 7-10 %

of their speech disfluent. These disfluencies are usually words aor phrase repetitions, fillers (um, ah) or interjections. When a speaker experiences difluencies at a rate greater then 10 % they may be stuttering. Stuttering is often accompanied by tension and anxiety.

The types of disfluencies in stuttering may also be different. Sound or syllable repetitions, silent “blocks”, and prolongations (unnatural stretching out of sound) and facial grimaces (tics) can be present. Stuttering has a strong genetic link. People who stutter are very likely to have inherited their “stuttering potential” or “Stuttering predisposition” from their mother, father, grandmother, and grandfather, with 50 up to 75% of people who stutter having at least one relative who also stutters.

Here are the sub-types of Slip of the tongue: a. Repetition:

1. of sounds (t-t-t-tall)

2. of syllables (mo-mo-mommy)

3. of parts of two words (foot-foot-football) 4. of whole words (pa-pa-paper)

5. of phrases (how far-how far-is it?)

b. Prolongation = a vowel or consonant in a word is lengthened (rrrrr-rabit,

mmmm- me to, aaaaaask him)

c. Blocks = a vowel of silence person seems unable to make a sound, attempting

to force words out with their mouth open or lips closed firmly (she----‘s here, r----ub it out)

d. Pitch and loudness rise = as the person repeats and prolongs sounds or words,

the pitch and loudness of his/ her voice increases. e. Tremors = uncontrolled quivering of the tongue or lip as the person repeats or

prolongs sounds.

f. Avoidence of talking = unusual number of pauses: substitution of words, etc.

g. Fear as the person approaches a word that gives him/ her trouble, he or she may display expression of fear: they may become upset and say things like “my words won’t come out”, or “I can’t say it”.

h. Irregular breathing most often heard when the person begins sentences or

phrases, speech may occur in spurts as the person struggles to keep airflow and voice sound flowing.

i. Embarrassment = the person will have a shame because of their in ability to

produce a word causing the person to avoid some conversations altogrther (they may wait for another person to answer the phone all the time, or they may walk around a store looking for something for an hour instead of just asking an employee where to find product).

j. Related behaviours foot tapping, eye blinks, head turns, etc. to try and avoid stuttering.

k. Variability in stuttering behaviour depends on the speaking situation, the communication partner, and the speaking task (the person who stutters might have an easier time talking to a speech-pathologists in an enclosed office than in a classroom among his or her peers, or they will be able to sing fluently but stutter when talking to a friend).

8. Interjection

Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjection is a short exclamation like: Oh!, Um!, or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but it is used them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written. Interjections are words or expressions, which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjections are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence. They have no grammatical connection to the sentence in which they occur: therefore, interjections may stand alone. In addition, if an interjection is mild, it is followed by comma.

If it is strong, it is followed by an exclamation point. In no instance should an interjection with comma or exclamation point be followed by period or comma respectively. Examples include words like: Oh, Darn, hey, Well. This type of error is symbolized with [*…*]. The following are two examples of the proper usage of interjections in sentence:

- Well, I supposed I should stay home and study this weekend.

- Darn! I broke my fingernail.

9. Slip of The Tongue

Slip of the tongue is one type of speech errors. It is usually symbolized by []. Slips of the tongue from repressed thoughts, which are revealed by particular errors, which a speaker makes (Freud, 1901).

There are several sub-types of slips of the tongue:

a. Anticipation is when a speaker intends to say “take my bike”, but says

instead “bake my bike”, anticipating the “b” at the beginning of “bake” in the speaker’s pronunciation of “take”

b. Perservation is the opposition of the anticipation

e.g. Take me to ride  take me to tide

c. Reversal is two segments are interchanged. Reversal happens in two syllables.

e.g. lighter  tighler

d. In Blends, the speaker mixes two words together taken the first half of one and the second half of other.

e.g. boys and girls  borls

e. Haplology is the speaker leaves out a short stretch of speech.

e.g. unanimity  unamity

f. Misderivation is the speaker somehow attaches the wrong suffix or prefix

to the word.

e.g. enjoyment  enjoity

g. Word Substitution is the speaker produces a word that is wrong, but

typically related either semantically or phonologically to the intended. e.g. My sister went to the Grand Canyon  The Grand Canyon went my

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Method

Nawawi (1995: 61) states that method is a way which is conducted in order to reach the goal. In writing the thesis, the writer used a descriptive method as what Saifuddin (1998: 7) says “Penelitian deskriptif bertujuan menggambarkan secara

sistematis dan akurat fakta dan karakteristik mengenai populasi atau mengenai bidang tertentu” (Descriptive research aims to describe systematically and accurately

facts and characteristics of population or of the certain field).

3.2 The Population and Sample

Webster (2003: 966) states that a population is a group of individual persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for measurement while a sample is a finite part of statistical population whose properties are studied to gain information about the whole. The subject of this research was texts of interview that the writer recorded from Metro TV channel. The writer took five interviews only as the sample in a week from Monday to Friday. Arikunto (2005: 97) says “Sampling bertujuan

adalah teknik sampling yang digunakan peneliti memiliki pertimbangan-pertimbangan tertentu di dalam pengambilan sampelnya.” (Purposive Sampling is

technique of sampling that is used by researcher when researcher has consideration in taking the sample).

1) Timothy Marbun (Reporter) and Rio Haryanto (Guest Star) Date: Monday, December 29, 2008

Time: 07.15 p.m.

2) Timothy Marbun (Reporter) and Agat Sidarimarsono (Guest Star) Date: Tuesday, December 30, 2008

Time: 07.15 p.m.

3) Timothy Marbun (Reporter) and Tondi Lubis (Guest Star) Date: Wednesday, December 31, 2008

Time: 07.15 p.m.

4) Timothy Marbun (Reporter) and Ikhsan Mojo (Guest Star) Date: Thursday, January 1, 2009

Time: 07.15 p.m.

5) Timothy Marbun (Reporter) and Darmadi Darmawangsa (Guest Star) Date: Friday, January 2, 2009

Time: 07.15 p.m.

3.3 Methods of Collecting Data

The methods of collecting data that are used in this thesis mainly: 1. The interviews were recorded.

2. The interviews were transcribed.

3. Every sentence containing speech errors in the interviews were notated by numbering.

3.4 Methods of Analyzing Data

The methods of analyzing data that are used in this thesis mainly: 1. Identifying the types of speech errors.

2. Classifying the speech errors into 9 types of speech errors by providing a table and calculating the speech errors and then they were counted by percentage to look for the dominant occurrence based on Bungin’s Theory. (Bungin 2001: 189).

The formula is n = x100%

N fx

.

n : percentage of one kind speech errors

fx : individuals frequency (one kind of speech errors) N : number of occurrence (all kinds of speech errors)

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ERRORS

4.1Types of Errors Made by the Reporter and Guest Stars in the Interviews of INDONESIA THIS MORNING News Program on Metro TV

Interview I

The errors were:

1. I’m start [ah] when I was six years old

2. Go-cart. Then [ah] I was there with my dad every Saturday and Sunday. I always practice with him. And I could return something to learn in five years and [/] and [ah] it’s my dream to become F1

3. How can be attraction came about [-] I mean (correction) did your dad force to be a driver or did you [/] did you [ah] I mean I’m interest and I wanna learn. W-w-w-what [stutter] it is more like?

4. When [ah] you know his car driver is [/] is so high is and [/] and you need to have fun and motivation to win the racing.

5. No, he didn’t. He told me and. [/] and. happy to learn something [-] I mean

and Ilike [/] I like racing.

6. So, ho-ho-how [stutter] do you practice? Of course you can’t do it on the street.

7. I practice in a track you know. A track is so safe and it’s not [/] it’s not good to practice on the street because it’s dangerous. Better you practice in a track than the street.

8. W-w-w-what [stutter] street talking about, Jakarta’s street? What do you think about Jakarta traffic by the way?

9. For next year, I will turn in Form BMW Asia and I have to work very hard before this season start. I have to keep practice and testing with my team and I prepare 100 percent prepare to [/] to win the tendencies next year.

10.What kind of preparation, beside you driving you also [/] you also go to the gym work out [/] to work out recently. Tell us about the work of your team! 11.Ok! [Interjection] One [/] one week, I do three times of radio vascular

treatment and also [ah] go to the team. I must [ah] I believe if I have a fit body I could [ah] I could have a good concentration and from the [//] you really need to have a good concentration when you are in the car and to [/] to really drive the car and they’ll live it.

12.And is it [/] is it really hands in coordination, do you agree? Whe-whe-when [stutter] you come to race car driving?

13.[Ah] we have to also fit because [//] the hot [//] [ah].even you in the car very hot especially in Asia. It’s about 50 degrees, so it’s really [/] really tiding and have to be a very fit so that we can perform.

14.To win the Championship. [//] to win the BMW Asia and after that I’ve to go to Europe which more competitive there and is [//] I want to go [/] I really want to go to Formula One (F1)

16.Do you express yourself when you [/] when you there?

17.Yes, to be focus on [//] 100 % focus because from the if you [ah] good focus and [/] and need a motivation to [/] to win the race is [/] is very important. 18.Michael Schumacher is seven times won the Formula One Championship.

He’s very unbelievable. It’s very difficult, but I can do it for [//] I hope one day I [/] I can be like him.

Table 1.1 The Speech Errors made by Timothy (Reporter) and Rio (Guest Star) No Silent Pause [//] Filled Pause […] Retreaced False Start [\] Unretraced False Start [\\] Correctio n [-] Repeat s [/] Stutter [---] Interjection [*…*] Slip of the tongue []

1 √

2 √√ √

3 √ √√ √ √

4 √ √√√

5 √√√ √

6 √

7 √

8 √

9 √

10 √√

11 √√√√ √ √

12 √ √

13 √√ √ √

14 √√ √

15 √√

16 √

17 √ √ √√√

18 √ √

In the 1st interview six kinds of speech errors were made, they were:

 Silent Pause = 8

 Filled Pause = 11

 Unretraced F.S = 0

 Correction = 3

 Repeat = 21

 Stutter = 3

 Interjection = 1

 Slip of tongue = 0

Total = 47

Analysis:

1. Silent Pause can be found in the Interview I. They are the sentences number

13, 14, 15, 17, and 18. It happened because the speaker thought what he wanted to say so that speed of talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum such of pausing. This kind of speech error can be minimized by enriching vocabularies.

2. Filled Pause can be found in the Interview I. They are the sentences number

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 13, and 17. It happened because the speaker cannot share his thoughts by creating some words fast and clearly so that he filled it by saying “ah”. This kind of speech error can be minimized by doing many exercises how to share our thoughts to the people by making conversation.

3. Correction can be found in the Interview I. They are the sentences number 3

and 5. It happened because what the speaker said previously was not obviously so that the speaker tried to take over the previous words which are considered to be misplanned by saying “I mean”. This kind of speech error

can be minimized by preparing ourselves and understanding what the topics are talking about.

4. Repeat can be found in the Interview I. They are the sentences number 2, 3, 4,

7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, and 18. It happened because the speaker talked very fast and spontaneously. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning to talk not too fast and clearly.

5. Stutter can be found in the Interview I. They are the sentences number 3,5,

and 8. It happened because the speaker repeated or prolonged the beginning sounds of many words so that they break up the smooth flow of speech. This kind of speech errors can be minimized by learning to talk relax and not nervous.

6. Interjection can be found in the Interview I exactly the sentence number 11. It

happened because the speaker had strong emotion or tried to gain attention. This kind of speech error can be minimized by controlling our emotion and using body language (gestures) to gain attention of another people.

Interview II

1. Now what I wanna ask you why [/] why now [ah] there be a busy immigration. Why now [ah] take it seriously an [ah] these experts without permits?

2. Ok Timothy! [Interjection] I thinks there is no..nothing [stutter] new an immigration law because [//] I think an every country have regulation about

[ah] for the foreigners who want to stay and [ah] [//] enter in this country at the special Indonesia, we don’t have a new immigration law like that. But we

introduce a new system [//] starting from June 2008. Our office more than 100 office with the on-line [//] from Sabang to Merauke. That’s why the system can manage [//] every transaction.

3. Every business [//] every application [//] and also for the [\\] for any inspection.

4. To detect for example [//] where they come from [//] and until how many long [//] how long you want to stay and when is the day expired of their stay, we can sure an hour a quarter where they is

5. Look! [Interjection] We also talk [ah] but we take focus on the foreigners who don’t have the right permits to stay here. [Oh] w-w-w-what [stutter]

makes this happen how [/] how could you prevent them?

6. Ok Timothy! [Interjection] As far as I know and our system to detect..the priority is we take from our system. But to the several [//] area and the certain place, we set a coordination with another institution to sweep and the certain place because [//] you know and close the new years and close celebrates. 7. So, how do [/] how do you do the sweep?

8. We just will [//] I think we keep politely [/] we keep politely and professional of course. Be..before [stutter] we do that, we get the information from our system and then we put together but I’m not sure this can’t be stop them enjoy

9. Then, how do [/] how do you recognize your targets when you this sweeping? 10.Sometime we looking because [//] in our report [/] in our report we always

keep where is the dancer for example he is going to be [ah] dancer for like that or she is going to the singer for like that.

11.Yes, I think [//] every year we have a routine operation like that and entertainment sector like that.

12.Including [ah] illegal prostitution?

13.So, how about those with who [/] who are teachers who do other jobs who [/]

who jobs are not little but stay here.

14.Ok Timothy! [Interjection] I know your mind set question because now [//]

we have corporation with several country for [//] education, for protection, for industry like that but [//] also we know that is the several guests, they don’t have [ah] they not complete with the all people who want to submit especially [//] and most of the students like that. He already entered in our country but he not yet completed with another people for that. So, sometimes according to our data, there’re more than 50 or 100 people students have office in here. And we have to manage very carefully because most of them

[//] come from our coordination our relationship with another country.

15.Ok Sir! [Interjection] One more thing, what sections will be applied to them?

16.Yes, according to our law [//] if these offer stay up to sixty, they have [/] they have to pay fund 20 dollars a day.

17.W-w-w-what [stutter] formal sanction doing?

18.According to our regulation that not only the law for themselves, the company of course. Because [//] we should have to report everything of the foreigner. When we [/] we or easy for others then they enroll new company, new offer or they have new [//] we have to report. If not they [] if they not report to our office of the local government, we have a sanction also.

19. What [/] what is it?

20.Yes, we get the administrative sanction like that because [//] but depend on the case [/] depend on the case.

21.Ok! [Interjection] Alright, thank you very much Mr. Hari for your coming this morning!

Table 1.2 The Speech Errors made by Timothy (Reporter) and Mr. Hari (Guest Star) No Silent Pause [//] Filled Pause […] Retreaced False Start [\] Unretraced False Start [\\] Correcti on [-] Repeat s [/] Stutter [---] Interjection [*…*] Slip of the tongue []

1 √√√ √

2 √√√√√ √√ √ √

3 √√ √

4 √ √√ √

5 √√√ √

6 √

7 √ √ √

8 √

9 √√ √ √

10 √

11 √

12 √√

13 √√√√√ √ √

14 √

15 √ √ 16 √

17 √

18 √√ √ √

19 √

20 √ √

In the 2nd interview seven kinds of speech errors were made, they were:

 Silent Pause = 24

 Filled Pause = 9

 Unretraced F.S = 0

 Unretraced F.S = 1

 Correction = 0

 Repeat = 11

 Stutter = 5

 Interjection = 6

 Slip of tongue = 1

Total = 57

Analysis:

1. Silent Pause can be found in the Interview II. They are the sentences number

2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 18, and 20. It happened because the speaker thought what he wanted to say so that speed of talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum such of pausing. This kind of speech error can be minimized by enriching vocabularies.

2. Filled Pause can be found in the Interview II. They are the sentences number

1, 2, 4, 9, 11, 13, and 15. It happened because the speaker cannot share his thoughts by creating some words fast and clearly so that he filled it by saying “ah”. This kind of speech error can be minimized by doing many exercises how to share our thoughts to the people by making conversation.

3. Unretraced False Starts can be found in the Interview II exactly the sentence

number 3. It happened because the speaker said the wrong words so that he needed to correct the words. This kind of speech error can be minimized by doing exercise to think and to say the right words, adding the vocabularies, and learning about English grammar.

4. Repeat can be found in the Interview II. They are the sentences number 6, 7,

8, 9, 12, 18, 19, and 20. It happened because the speaker talked very fast and spontaneously. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning to talk not too fast and clearly.

5. Stutter can be found in the Interview II. They are the sentences number 2, 4,

7, and 17. It happened because the speaker repeated or prolonged the beginning sounds of many words so that they break up the smooth flow of speech. This kind of speech errors can be minimized by learning to talk relax and not nervous.

6. Interjection can be found in the Interview II. They are the sentences number

2, 4, 5, 13, 14, and 21. It happened because the speaker had strong emotion or tried to gain attention. This kind of speech error can be minimized by controlling our emotion and using body language (gestures) to gain attention of another people.

7. Slip of Tongue can be found in the Interview II exactly the sentence number

18. It happened because the speaker talked with grammatical errors especially for his sentence structure. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning and adding our knowledge about the English grammar.

Interview III

1. Ok! [Interjection][Ah] green home [ah] basically green buildings. They are applied in five categories which is the first systemically sites, number two water efficiency, number three energy efficient, number four is material at the sources and number five is environmental qualities.

2. For the example so far, what [/] what you said with all these five and in what form they are common?

3. Traditional ones. Ok! [Interjection] Cause wake up the green buildings we use it things material buildings by source power, how do you say traditional houses are green buildings?

4. Because all the traditional houses, if we look at to these five categories, they are all [ah] applying suitable sites meaning that they are building in [/] in areas which is not [ah] destructive to the environment. They are using sites as long as possible, if you [ah] look at traditional house they are most Rumah Panggung like meaning that they are destructing the [/] the site at the minimum [ah] that [/] that they can. And number two, water efficiency. Most of the times, they [/] they useless water die than modern homes. And the energy efficient of course they do not air conditioner the big thing that whole basically change the whole thing and then [ah] making buildings [ah] and nothing fun mentally family. Number three, material service sources even they use import material, they use natural material. And number five, they don’t use more than paints. They don’t use anything that is [ah] creating [ah]

in doter quality which would be unhealthy. So, all of these five categories are implemented in traditional house.

5. That’s the problem! When we apply modern life in to our daily things and then trying to fit this modern life into a building, that’s for the conflict happens. All for us are then we wearing [ah] jackets, all of us are then we need air conditioner, and all of us are then we required more. So, that’s the conflict and that’s the challenge and how to implement all of these five categories into modern house.

6. How do you think we can make ou..ou..ou..our [stutter] home green in a city like this?

7. Of course, there are always possibilities and there are always good samples of

[ah] if you at the first thing is to find the good [\] a good location meaning that you shouldn’t take a location right this actually a produced farm land not touch the area [ah] Number two, [ah] in the size of house. Do you really need 1000 meters square office? Because office let if you occupied 1000 meters square the post you will occupied half time the resources as if it’s about 250

square meters [] meters square The design of the house [ah] do you know that West is always be the hottest area and the hottest of direction because of the sun. So, if you [ah] put it all the windows facing western you’ll be in trouble like that. [Ah] the logical thing is the face all the windows to the other direction. Next on, [ah] that the [ah] the suitable size and we. [/] we have all the four others categories.

8. But how about the cost? Cause usually people whe..whe..when [stutters]

take green home we need high cost, is that true?

9. No, because [ah] one of the largest paying company in the world than the resource. If this is a line of coverage construction, cost of construction the

buildings they are green buildings, they are lower [\] much lower than this

[ah] coverage, right! They are buildings that have the average cost and they are also higher cost. So, [ah] it depends on ah…the time that you make decision to go green. The earlier that you want to go green before the [/] the line is even drawn on the drawing board than they use a lot of cost.

10.Energy. Basically, green homes and green buildings is one you will [ah] be

[ah] environment building meaning that you are [ah] consume last [ah]

natural resources than average than conventional. Number two, it is economically. So, it has to be cheaper. Number three, you will look you will have a healthy place to live and to work.

11.So, do you have any like simple tips to make our house green? We don’t have

to buy [ah] new things. It just what we have now to make a green house.

W-w-w-what [stutter] is your tip?

12.Stop with energy conservation [ah] it useless air conditioner as possible such as at 25 degrees.

13.Ok! [Interjection] Alright Mr. Tondi Lubis! Thank you very much for your coming this morning!

Table 1.3 The Speech Errors made by Timothy (Reporter) and Mr. Tondi (Guest Star) No Silent Pause [//] Filled Pause […] Retreaced False Start [\] Unretrace d False Start [\\] Correctio n [-] Repeat s [/] Stutter [---] Interjection [*…*] Slip of the tongue []

1 √√ √

2 √

3 √

4 √√√√

5 √

6 √

7 √√√√

√√√√ √ √

8 √

9 √√√√ √ √

10 √√√√

11 √ √ √

12 √

13 √

In the 3rd interview seven kinds of speech errors were made, they were:

 Silent Pause = 1

 Filled Pause = 29

 Retraced F.S = 2

 Unretraced F.S = 0

 Correction = 0

 Repeat = 6

 Stutter = 3

 Interjection = 3

 Slip of tongue = 1

Total = 45

Analysis:

1. Silent Pause can be found in the Interview III exactly the sentence number 3.

It happened because the speaker thought what he wanted to say so that speed of talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum such of pausing. This kind of speech error can be minimized by enriching vocabularies.

2. Filled Pause can be found in the Interview III. They are the sentences number

thoughts by creating some words fast and clearly so that he filled it by saying “ah”. This kind of speech error can be minimized by doing many exercises how to share our thoughts to the people by making conversation.

3. Retraced False Starts can be found in the Interview III. They are the

sentences number 7 and 9. It happened because the speaker said the wrong words so that he needed to correct the words. This kind of speech error can be minimized by doing exercise to think and to say the right words, adding the vocabularies, and learning about English grammar.

4. Repeat can be found in the Interview III. They are the sentences number 2, 4,

and 9. It happened because the speaker talked very fast and spontaneously. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning to talk not too fast and clearly.

5. Stutter can be found in the Interview III. They are the sentences number 6, 8,

and 11. It happened because the speaker repeated or prolonged the beginning sounds of many words so that they break up the smooth flow of speech. This kind of speech errors can be minimized by learning to talk relax and not nervous.

6. Interjection can be found in the Interview III. They are the sentences number

1, 3, and 13. It happened because the speaker had strong emotion or tried to gain attention. This kind of speech error can be minimized by controlling our emotion and using body language (gestures) to gain attention of another people.

7. Slip of Tongue can be found in the Interview II exactly the sentence number

for his sentence structure. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning and adding our knowledge about the English grammar.

Interview IV

1. First question will be the first global Indonesia commodities. It has reduce commodity process and cost separate [ah] lay ups, what other sector economic sector was see more mostly ups?

2. Ok! [Interjection] [Ah] what will be [-] I mean like that the sector will be hard hit by the crises is the those sectors which is export oriented. So, sectors like [ah] palm oil, coffees, and cocoa as well as some other factors like [ah]

tax from government. But, I think we also see [ah] some like in [/] in manufacture sectors which [ah] impose as well as a declining [/] declining income.

3. It is quite bad.[-] I mean like the some for like the average for [ah] the unemployment that would happen in 2009 is around 50.000-1.000.000 people or talk that we also have like ad..additional [stutter] unemployment which come from the foreign workers Indonesia foreign workers [ah] which gonna return home [ah] that because of this [ah] di…this [stutter] coming of the crises.

4. So, this big employee is it all big employees will face a big [ah] lay up or other sector that are saved.

5. [Ah] not necessary big employees [-] I mean like [ah] from the previous experience in the 1997-1998, the biggest lay off. I think is gonna happen from the medi…medium [stutter] terms so those which have like under 1000

employees. Because like big business usually have like a band and access and some they have protected insulated from the crises similarly the [ah] a small business. They also insulated because they can ah…tape and diverse product to other market. So, d..d..d..the [stutter] crises will be ((unaudioable))

6. Not yet, it is all. The sector in the both [/] both all ((unaudioable)).

So, the sectors are the export oriented ah…import intense [] intensity so

[ah]…tho..tho..those [stutter] [ah] sectors and also the [/] the firms 7. Ok! [Interjection] Now, what title fiscal stimulus is best for us?

8. [Ah] I’m actually be skeptic about like fiscal stimulus in terms of like increasing double expanded there are such reasons. First, I mean like it’s hard because you have to spend this [ah] new amount money quickly and [ah] and

[/] and this hard because [-] I mean like we. [/] we couldn’t have found like best sectors which have good being value to society as well perhaps it does [/]

it does will being [ah] worst from our politician. And second one, [ah] the timing. Ok! [Interjection] the timing because the current crises will hit Indonesia. I think from January to July 2009 where those fiscal stimulus in terms expanded gonna hit on-line start from August to December. The third one, I mean like the concern about the fiscal signature is [-] I mean like

where we got the money from [ah] about financing issue. But, I still. I [/] I

think they are still some room [ah] for fiscal stimulus in terms of tax especially personal income tax fee. So, those [ah] taxes will full directly to household, to [ah] increase of income and into business to reduction of [ah]

re…reduction [stutter] in tax could increase consumption as well as business investment.

9. Ok! [Interjection] now for the common we get the crises that infected into our daily life. What would you suggest they to do [ah] be balance the more get credit payment in all the expanses?

10.Yes, first of all they have to concern if they have debts; they have to counselor these debts but on the other hand [ah] suggest that for our consumer in Indonesia to keep spending [ah] to spend the local products. 11.[Ah] in the big way it increases consumption so increasing. They must

consumption hopefully can off set some reduction in exports as well as in investment. So, people are looking at first, they must consumption not import. And the second one is on the government explanatory. But we distrust government explanatory may not be effective. So, I think we have to look at more.

Table 1.4 The Speech Errors made by Timothy (Reporter) and Mr. Ikhsan (Guest Star) No Silent Pause [//] Filled Pause […] Retreace d False Start [\] Unretraced False Start [\\] Correctio n [-] Repeat s [/] Stutter [---] Interjection [*…*] Slip of the tongue []

1 √

2 √√√√√ √√ √ √

3 √√√√ √√

4 √

5 √√√√ √ √√

6 √√√ √√ √ √

7 √

8 √√√√√

√√√√

√√√√ √√√

√√

√

9 √ √

10 √√

In the 4th interview six kinds of speech errors were made, they were:

 Silent Pause = 0

 Filled Pause = 31

 Retraced F.S = 0

 Unretraced F.S = 0

 Correction = 5

 Repeat = 9

 Stutter = 6

 Interjection = 4

 Slip of tongue = 2

Total = 57

Analysis:

1. Filled Pause can be found in the Interview IV. They are the sentences number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 11. It happened because the speaker cannot share his thoughts by creating some words fast and clearly so that he filled it by saying “ah”. This kind of speech error can be minimized by doing many exercises how to share our thoughts to the people by making conversation

2. Correction can be found in the Interview IV. They are the sentences number

5 and 8. It happened because what the speaker said previously was not obviously so that the speaker tried to take over the previous words which are considered to be misplanned by saying “I mean”. This kind of speech error

can be minimized by preparing ourselves and understanding what the topics are talking about.

3. Repeat can be found in the Interview IV. They are the sentences number 2, 6,

and 8. It happened because the speaker talked very fast and spontaneously. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning to talk not too fast and clearly.

4. Stutter can be found in the Interview IV. They are the sentences number 3, 5,

and 6. It happened because the speaker repeated or prolonged the beginning sounds of many words so that they break up the smooth flow of speech. This kind of speech errors can be minimized by learning to talk relax and not nervous.

5. Interjection can be found in the Interview IV. They are the sentences number

2, 7, 8, and 9. It happened because the speaker had strong emotion or tried to gain attention. This kind of speech error can be minimized by controlling our emotion and using body language (gestures) to gain attention of another people.

6. Slip of Tongue can be found in the Interview IV. They are the sentences

number 2 and 6. It happened because the speaker talked with grammatical errors especially for his sentence structure. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning and adding our knowledge about the English grammar.

Interview V

1. Now, we re talking about New Year reso…resolution [stutter] here. What thing that usually first in our mind is our carrier [/] carrier development. So, how do we [/] how do we achieve this resolution for carrier development. You know some people are like service team in our opportunities. How do [/]

how do we offer come that?

2. Well, 80-90% people commit do a resolution but they end up by the end up of January they offer. So, my tips very simple focus on your goals. What you are actually really want to achieve it be easier the whole year 365 is along days. But if you focus on your goals, committing to your goals to you to do your best everyday, all the [/] the rest will taking care.

3. Of course, before we [/] we taking to action, I want to ask either we focus on positive or negative things. Most of the people think that they focus positive but check in our life everyday, most of the time we spend focus on negative. So, focus on the positive things first then by directly our focus in the positive direction then it is easier for us to take a positive action.

4. In 2009 will be very challenging and [ah] different but I believe [ah] carrier that we have to work with the team the best added you know. Most a lot of people and I so [//] have a carrier just because of money interest. But my point of view, people have to see what is their best. If you are good as a like for myself as a motivator, be a motivator. If you are good as a

5. Yes, a good question. We have to experience it. We have to try. I don’t [/] I don’t believe that people know what they are [//] best and they have to find it [//] by experience.

6. Is it [/] is it a skill that you?

7. But the skill [/] the skill that we can [/] we can learn. The talent is there but the most important thing is how we battle the talents and how we have action in what we do. That’s the most important thing.

8. So, the economic [/] the economic 2009 is gonna be bad economic [ah] how do we [/] how do we keep peace of mind of facing this economic.

9. Well! [Interjection] I didn’t say the economic is bad but I see it depends on how people see the economic. I say there are two ways to see the [/] the 2009. 80% people will except [] expect the condition will exist just expect level. If they say the last quartile is [/] is bad you know they expect that 2009 problem difficult too. But the. [/] the other twen…twenty [stutter] percents are the people who expect the responsibility for changing them. This is very interesting. If I can have a very short example like Mr. Barak Obama the elected President US, if you see his commissioning, first he is young. Second, he comes from a divorce parents. Third, he is black and he is Democrat. For 200 years they won’t be any President like this conditioning. But Obama [/]

Obama see the different feel then he said: “I want to try, I want to be the President of USA”. This is the type of 20% people who doesn’t [//] rely on the condition in happen like what will happen in 2009 but try to make a change.

10. So, you say try to make a change and you know we gotta try editing to [/] to know here we good are. But what if we try and feel won’t be [//] lower than ever?

11.Well! [Interjection] That’s the problem with a lot of people you know. They always judge their result by the [/] the result. I feel I have succeed. The successful people don’t think like that. You take action, you fail then you learn, change the strategy and move on. Life is like that.

12. So, one..one..one..one [stutter] resolution also losing way.

13. Achieving you know particular [ah] great. Sometimes it is like habit. How to keep that this habit strong?

14. Wow! [Interjection] That’s challenge thing for everyone. I just read from a newspaper that talking about this is what they call sickly cal challenge. And a lot people, they try to losing wait and after that they gain with again losing wait again. I think that is sickly cal tease and everyone have the [/] the some problems. From my tips is like lie [/] lie want to lose your wait. That [/] that is the first reason that you have to be more handsome or more beautiful. That’s not the biggest reason for you to change. You should have the motivation coming to yourself such as probably said you look at your parents. You see your parents 20 years old then you say wow, they are fat and they get a lot of [ah] this is I don’t to be like them next 20 years. I have to work out. Find your owner reason; find your own heart bottom. That’s easier way. 15. No…not [stutter] from outside.

Table 1.5 The Speech Errors made by Timothy (Reporter) and Mr. Darmadi (Guest Star) No Silent Pause [//] Filled Pause […] Retreaced False Start [\] Unretraced False Start [\\] Correctio n [-] Repeat s [/] Stutter [---] Interjection [*…*] Slip of the tongue []

1 √√√ √

2 √

3 √

4 √ √√ √

5 √√ √

6 √

7 √√

8 √ √√

9 √ √√√

√ √

10 √ √

11 √ √

12 √

13 √

14 √ √√√

15 √

16 √

In the 5th interview five kinds of speech errors were made, they were:

 Silent Pause = 5

 Filled Pause = 5

 Retraced F.S = 0

 Unretraced F.S = 0

 Correction = 0

 Repeat = 20

 Stutter = 5

 Interjection = 2

 Slip of tongue = 0

Analysis:

1. Silent Pause can be found in the Interview V. They are the sentences number

4, 5, 9, and 10. It happened because the speaker thought what he wanted to say so that speed of talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum such of pausing. This kind of speech error can be minimized by enriching vocabularies.

2. Filled Pause can be found in the Interview V. They are the sentences number

4, 8, 13, and 14. It happened because the speaker cannot share his thoughts by creating some words fast and clearly so that he filled it by saying “ah”. This kind of speech error can be minimized by doing many exercises how to share our thoughts to the people by making conversation.

3. Repeat can be found in the Interview V. They are the sentences number 1, 2,

3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 14. It happened because the speaker talked very fast and spontaneously. This kind of speech error can be minimized by learning to talk not too fast and clearly.

4. Stutter can be found in the Interview IV. They are the sentences number 1, 4,

9, 12, and 15. It happened because the speaker repeated or prolonged the beginning sounds of many words so that they break up the smooth flow of speech. This kind of speech errors can be minimized by learning to talk relax and not nervous.

5. Interjection can be found in the Interview V. They are the sentences number

11 and 16. It happened because the speaker had strong emotion or tried to gain attention. This kind of speech error can be minimized by controlling our

gonna happen from the medi…medium terms so those which have like under 1000 employees. Because like big business usually have like a band and access and some they have protected insulated from the crises similarly the ah…a small business. They also insulated because they can ah…tape and diverse product to other market. So, the..the..the..the crises will be ((unaudioable))……

Timothy : So, the most condition of company itself not the sector, is it?

Mr. Ikhsan : Not yet, it is all. The sector in the both…both all ((unaudioable)). So, the sectors are the export oriented ah…import intense…intensity so ah…tho..tho..those ah…sectors and also the…the firms.

Timothy : Ok! Now, what title fiscal stimulus is best for us?

Mr. Ikhsan : Ah…I’m actually be skeptic about like fiscal stimulus in terms of like increasing double expanded there are such reasons. First, I mean like it’s hard because you have to spend this ah…new amount money quickly and ah…and…and this hard because I mean like we..we..we couldn’t have found like best sectors which have good being value to society as well perhaps it does…it..it does will being ah…worst from our politician. And second one, ah…the timing. Ok, the timing because the current crises will hit Indonesia. I think from January to July 2009 where those fiscal stimulus in terms expanded gonna hit on-line start from August to December. The third one, I mean like the concern about the fiscal signature is I mean like where we got the money from ah…about financing issue. But, I still..I..I think they are still some room ah…for fiscal stimulus in terms of tax especially personal income tax fee. So, those ah…taxes will full directly to household, to ah…increase of income and into business to reduction of ah…retail tax so that we hope that I mean like fiscal stimulus in

terms re…reduction in tax could increase consumption as well as business investment.

Timothy : Ok, now for the common we get the crises that infected into our daily life. What would you suggest they to do ah…be balance the more get credit payment in all the expanses.

Mr. Ikhsan : Yes, first of all they have to concern if they have debts, they have to counselor these debts but on the other hand ah…suggest that for our consumer in Indonesia to keep spending h…to spend the local products.

Timothy : What is the effect in the big way?

Mr. Ikhsan : Ah..in the big way it increase consumption so increasing. They must consumption hopefully can off set some reduction in exports as well as in investment. So, people are looking at first, they must consumption not import. And the second one is on the government explanatory. But we distrust government explanatory may not be effective. So, I think we have to look at more.

Timothy : But mostly must to be local production.

Mr. Ikhsan : Yes, local production.

INTERVIEW V

Timothy : Good morning, Mr. Darmadi!

Mr. Darmadi : Good morning, Timothy!

Timothy : Now, we re talking about New Year resolution here. What thing that usually first in our mind is our carrier..carrier development. So, how do we…how do we achieve this resolution for carrier development. You know some people are like service team in our opportunities. How do…how do we offer come that?

Mr. Darmadi : Well, 80-90% people commit do a resolution but they end up by the end up of January they offer. So, my tips very simple focus on your goals. What you are actually really want to achieve it be easier the whole year 365 is along days. But if you focus on your goals, committing to your goals to you…to do your best everyday, all the..the rest will taking care.

Timothy : But focus is not enough, what else do we need? We need action and what else?

Mr. Darmadi : Of course, before we…we taking to action, I want to ask either we focus on positive or negative things. Most of the people think that they focus positive but check in our life everyday, most of the time we spend focus on the negative. So, focus on the positive things first then by directly our focus in the positive direction then it is easier for us to take a positive action.

Mr. Darmadi : In 2009 will be very challenging and ah…different but I believe ah…carrier that we have to work with the team the best added you know. Most a lot of people and I so….have a carrier just because of money interest. But my point of view, people have to see what is their best. If you are good as a like for myself as a motivator, be a motivator. If you are good as a news..newscaster, be a newscaster.

Timothy : How do we know what we are good in?

Mr. Darmadi : Yes, a good question. We have to experience it. We have to try. I don’t…I don’t believe that people know they are….best and they have to find it by experience.

Timothy : Are you bored with it or do you…? Mr. Darmadi : Never.

Timothy : Is it…is it a skill that you…?

Mr. Darmadi : But the skill…the skill that we can…we can learn. The talent is there but the most important thing is how we battle the talents and how we have action in what we do. That’s the most important thing.

Timothy : So, the economic…the economic 2009 is gonna be bad economic ah…how do we…how do we keep peace of mind of facing this economic.

Mr. Darmadi : Well, I didn’t say the economic is bad but I see it depends on how people see the economic. I say there are two ways to see the…the 2009. 80% people will except (expect) the condition will exist just expect level. If they say the last quartile is…is bad you know they expect that 2009 problem difficult too. But the..the other 20…20% are the people who expect the responsibility for changing them. This is very interesting. If I can have a very short example like Mr. Barak

Obama the elected President USA, if you see his commissioning, first he is young. Second, he comes from a divorce parents. Third, he is black and he is Democrat. For 200 years they won’t be any President like this conditioning. But Obama…Obama see the different feel then he said: “I want to try, I want to be the President of USA”. This is the type of 20% people who doesn’t….rely on the condition in happen like what will happen in 2009 but try to make a change.

Timothy : So, you say try to make a change and you know we gotta try editing to know…know where we good are. But what if we try and feel won’t be lower than ever?

Mr. Darmadi : Well, that’s the problem with a lot of people. They always judge their result by the…the result. I feel I have succeed. The successful people don’t think like that. You take action, you fail then you learn, change the strategy and move on. Life is like that.

Timothy : So, one..one..one..one resolution also losing way.

Mr. Darmadi : Losing way!

Timothy : Achieving you know particular ah…great. Sometimes it is like habit. How to keep that this habit strong?

Mr. Darmadi : Wow, that’s challenge thing for everyone. I just read from a newspaper that talking about this is what they call sickly cal challenge. And a lot people, they try to losing wait and after that they gain with again losing wait again. I think that is sickly cal tease and everyone have the..the some problems. From my tips is like lie..lie want to lose your wait. That…that’s the first reason that you have to be more handsome or more beautiful. That’s not the biggest reason for you to change. You should have the motivation coming to

yourself such as probably said you look at your parents. You see your parents 20 years old then you say wow, they are fat and they get a lot of ah…this is I don’t to be like them next 20 years. I have to work out. Find your owner reason; find your own heart bottom. That’s easier way.

Timothy : And it has to come from us.

Mr. Darmadi : Yes

Timothy : Not from outside.

Mr. Darmadi : Not…not from outside.

Timothy : Ok! Thank you very much for your time!