Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV

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Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia”

Program on Metro TV

A THESIS

BY

LIDYA VOLVARIATY

REG.NO. : 070721033

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA

FACULTY OF LETTERS

ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTMENT

MEDAN

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Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV

A Thesis by

LIDYA VOLVARIATY Reg.No. 070721033

Supervisor Co-Supervisor

Dr. H. Muhizar Muchtar, MS Drs. Umar Mono, Dip.Trans, M.Hum NIP. 19541117 198003 1 002 NIP. 131570486

Submitted to Faculty of Letters, University of North Sumatera in partial fullfilment of the requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Literature.

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA FACULTY OF LETTERS

ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTEMENT MEDAN

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, the writer would like to praise and give the greatest honor only to Allah SWT who loves her by giving blessings, guidance, strenght, and joy to finish this thesis in a very limit time. Alhamdulillah.

This thesis discusses about the speech errors analysis that found in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV.

The writer would like to say thank to the dearest lectures who helped her in writing this thesis as it now appears. To whom the writer shall thank are:

1. Dr. Syahron Lubis, M.A as the Dean of Faculty of Letters, USU.

2. Dr. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S as the Head of English Department and Dr. Nurlela, M.Hum as the Secretary.

3. Dr. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S again as the writer’s Supervisor and Drs. Umar Mono, Dip. Tran, M.S for the precious advices, supporting assistance and a very huge understanding which highly motivated her to finish this thesis. 4. Drs. Marzaini Manday, MSPD for the encouragement when she is working

on this thesis.

The writer’s great thanks must go to her beloved daddy for his love, prays, care, patient, and attention on the writer as his only daughter. Thank you for your support every single days. The writer dedicated this thesis for him for he is the most precious thing in this world, to see him being proud of her daughter. I love you, Daddy.

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The writer also gives her special thanks to her step mother Mrs. Narlina for her big support as well. Besides, many thanks to her fiance Irwan Syafruddin, S.Pi as for his love, big support, and prayers which made her finished this thesis smoothly. He has become both an inspiration and strength for her during she is working on this thesis.

Beside that, thanks should be awarded to the writer’s boss, Mr. Chitra Bustaf the Director of SYNERGY Learning Group for his highly support and understanding so far, my workmates at SYNERGY Learning Group as well : Pak Syarif and Sheila for their supports and help during she is working on the thesis.

The writer will never forget to thank the Administrative officer at the Faculty of Ilmu Budaya USU, named Pak Zulham who helped her figuring up her study problems before being allowed to do this thesis due to a very long ressess from her study. Besides, the writer also thanks to her friends, they are: Sister Yoshie Indah Yuni, my best friends : Sri Warda Nengsih, Tengku Lia Khairani, Gema Satriani, and Erwan Susilo who always reminded and supported her to finish this thesis.

Last but not least, the writer would like to say thank to all her friends whose names cannot be mentioned all in this thesis. Thanks a lot for everything that they have done for her. Finally, the writer hopes this thesis will always be beneficial for the readers.

Medan, 18 July, 2011

Lidya Volvariaty Reg.No.070721033

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ABSTRACT

Skripsi ini berjudul Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV, yang merupakan suatu analisis mengenai kesalahan pengucapan yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan beberapa orang bintang tamu pada acara talk show dalam bahasa Inggris di Metro TV. Adapun tujuan dari analisis ini adalah untuk mengetahui dan mengamati kesalahan pengucapan apa saja yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara maupun bintang tamu dalam acara tersebut karena pemirsa televisi terkadang tidak menyadari adanya kesalahan pengucapan yang mereka lakukan ketika acara ini berlangsung.

Dalam skripsi ini, analisis menuju kepada pengamatan jenis kesalahan pengucapan dalam bahasa Inggris yang dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan bintang tamu selama beberapa menit di beberapa sesi tayangan program ini. Analisis ini dilakukan berpedoman pada teori dari Clark (1977), yaitu: silent pause, filled pause, repeats, retraced false start, unretraced false start, stutters, interjections, dan slip of the tongue.

Dari hasil analisis tersebut disimpulkan bahwa jenis kesalahan yang sering dilakukan oleh pembawa acara dan bintang tamu dalam acara tersebut adalah sebanyak 246 (dua ratus empat puluh enam) kali, dimana jenis kesalahan pengucapan yang paling banyak dilakukan adalah filled pause. Berikut adalah

hasil lengkap dari jumlah kesalahan pengucapan untuk ke sembilan jenis kesalahan pengucapan di atas: Filled Pause sebesar 27,15% yakni sebanyak 79 (tujuh puluh sembilan) kali, diikuti oleh Repeats dan Corrections sebanyak

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masing-masing sebesar 15,46% yakni 45 (empat puluh lima) kali, kemudian disusul oleh Silent Pause sebesar 11,68% yakni sebanyak 34 (tiga puluh empat) kali, Stutters sebesar 9,28% yakni sebanyak 27 (dua puluh tujuh) kali,

Interjections sebesar 8,59% yakni sebanyak 25 (dua puluh lima) kali, lalu

Retraced False Start sebesar 5,84% yakni sebanyak 17 (tujuh belas) kali, kemudian diikuti Unretraced False Start sebesar 3,78% yakni sebanyak 11 (sebelas) kali, dan yang terakhir adalah Slip of the Tongue sebesar 2,75% yakni sebanyak 8 (delapan) kali.

Setiap kesalahan pengucapan yang dilakukan baik oleh pembawa acara maupun bintang tamu dalam acara talk show ini berbeda satu sama lain. Hal ini dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor tertentu seperti kesulitan kognitif dan juga faktor sosial.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... i

ABSTRACT... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS... v

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Analysis…... 1

1.2 Problem of Analysis... 6

1.3 Objective of Analysis... 6

1.4 Significance of Analysis... 6

1.5 Scope of Analysis... 7

2 RESEARCH METTHODOLOGY 2.1 Method of Analysis... 8

2.2 Data Collecting Method... 8

2.3 Procedure of Analysis. ... 9

2.4 Review of Related Literature... 9

3 AN OVERVIEW OF SPEECH PRODUCTION PROCESS 3.1 A Description of Psycholinguistics... 12

3.2 Linguistic Competence and Performance... 19

3.3 Speech Planning and Execution... 23

3.3.1 The Ideal Delivery... 26

3.3.2 Sources of Planning Difficulty... 28

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4 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH ERRORS MADE IN INTERVIEW

4.1 Types of Speech... 37

4.2 Seven Essentials of Speech Preparation... 41

4.3 Television and Public Speaking... 46

5 THE ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ERRORS MADE BY THE INTERVIEWER AND COMMENTATORS IN “TALK INDONESIA” PROGRAM ON METRO TV... 52

5.1 Talk Indonesia on 13th of March 2011... 55

5.2 Talk Indonesia on 20th of March 2011... 57

5.3 Talk Indonesia on 27th of March 2011... 60

5.4 Talk Indonesia on 03rd of April 2011... 64

5.5 Talk Indonesia on 10th of April 2011... 66

5.6 Talk Indonesia on 17th of April 2011... 68

5.7 Talk Indonesia on 01st of May 2011... 71

5.8 Talk Indonesia on 22nd of May 2011... 73

5.9 Talk Indonesia on 29th of May 2011... 75

6 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESIONS 6.1 Conclusions... 80

6.2 Suggestions... 81

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ABSTRACT

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Interjections sebesar 8,59% yakni sebanyak 25 (dua puluh lima) kali, lalu

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Analysis

Nowadays, language is obviously a vital tool in human beings’ life. People need language to communicate one another, in which one of the key to how to communicate one another and exchange ideas. Therefore, language is called a system of communication and interaction, particulary in social life. Since language is very important, we must learn how to use it properly. We must be responsible on what and how we say. By means of language you can improve both your mind and personality.

A language is more than apparently simple stream of sound that flows from the tounge of a native speaker. It is a complex system of communication with various levels of complexity involving intricate selection and ordering of meanings, sounds, and larger units and arrangements.

Linguists and others have defined language in various ways rather than attempting a full definition here, we will identify language by pointing out some distinctive features. Hall (1968:158) cites: “Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols.”

Lado (1961:2) cites: “Language is primarily an insturment of communication

among human beings in community which speaks the same language. A community who speaks the same language is language community.”

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Another linguist, Brown (1970:102) cites: “Language is a behavior, that is a phase of human activity which must not be treated in essence as structurally divorced from the structural of non verbal human activity. The activity of man constitutes a structural whole in such a way that it cannot be sub-divided into neat parts or level or compartment with language in a behavioral compartment insulated in character, content, and organization from other behavior.”

Referring to the statement above, we conclude that languages playsa crucial role in our live and it also shows behavior. Languages are used to communicate to one another as signs which you can tell someone what you see and what you think. Although we can get something without using a verbal language, still it doesn’t work well, therefore, we can not live without language whenever and whereever we are.

In this era of globalization, one of the most important languages in the world is English. It develops greatly as human use it in their activities and can even be called to be the single most important language. As it is a universal language in any part of the world, it makes at least a few people in each locality know the language. In spite of these people might not have the same accent as others, they at least can understand one another. In Indonesia itself, English language plays a role as a second language or a foreign language, therefore people in Indonesia should master it as a second or a foreign language, for it is an international language.

In the international community, English is used as an official language, the language of adminstration, commerce, business, etc. It is also the language of

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education since a lot of books are written in English; moreover, the presence of English as a universal language assumes importance in fact that more people leave their countries not only for business and pleasure, but also for their study. English becomes a medium in their study for those who will go to other countries to study. This is because the individual will not be able to learn a subject in the language of a country. As a matter of fact, English has been a compulsory subject learned in many countries arround the world. Further Bloomfield (1953:57) cites: “English has been spoken by more native speakers than any other language except, presumably, North Chinese, if we count the important factor of foreign speakers, English is the most widespread of language.”

In producing English language, sometimes people can make some errors. Speech errors are offten found in spontaneous speech, such as in everyday speech. People usually think that producing speech is any easy thing, they can produce sentences automatically by using their articulatory programs to convey their thought. Therefore, most of them do not prepare full planning before addressing a speech, especially in making spontaneous speech. Clark and Clark (1977:223) cites: ‘Talking seems to require little thought or effort, In most conversations the words flow with just the least bit of mental urging, People think about what they want to say and their tongues seem to take care of the rest, automatically putting their thoughts into words’.

Actually, speaking is not as easy as we think, especially when we want to speak about difficult thing. For instance, if we want to describe a certain room. First of all, we should think about the wide of the room, the location of the room,

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and what are in it. Thus, speakers must formulate a plan accurately before addressing a speech. In addition, speakers should plan where to start first. Therefore, in speaking activity, speakers should know about speech planning and execution. Fauziati (2008:137) cites: “Thus, producing speech seems to follow two types of proccesses: planning and execution”. Planning is a proccess in speaker’s mind to plan what he or she wants to talk about. While execution is a process of uttering the segments, words, phrase based on speaker’s plan.”

In most crucial human activities, success depends on knowledge, skill and self-confidence. There are some characteristics, which form the basis of effective speech. Without the knowledge, the speech will become nonsense or even not being successful. Without self-confidence, the speaker stumble and lack of power. Without skill, expression is often crude or monotonous

Reffering to the statement above about the importance of language which is related to the speech production proccess, the writer are intested to analyze the language as it is spoken on television. As we all know that today no body can deny that television has become an important part of our lives as it affects our daily routine. It has been a telecomunication medium which is fully imformative. In accordance with the era development, television offers a lot of interesting programs such as in education, entertaiment, news program, talk show, quizes, variety of shows, etc.

One of the most favourite TV channels in Indonesia is Metro TV. This TV channel offers a lot of interesting programs and the most favourite programs are news programs dan talk shows in English language. One of the most favoutite talk

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show programs is ‘Talk Indonesia”, broadcasted by Dalton Tanonaka and two other guest commentators. In this case, the writer chose ‘Talk Indonesia’ program as the data of analysis because she found a lot of spontaneous speech errors made by the interviewers and commentators during the progress of the program. Beside that, the program always discuss up-to-dated and hot topics have happened recently. The spontaneity in producing speech during this program leads the occurance of speech errors. It is natural considering that producing spontaneous speech is not easy.

Speech errors phenomenon is very interesting to be invistigated because from speech errors we can observe how linguistics and speaker’s mind are related each other. Therefore, the writer conducted this study by using psycholinguistics approach because speech errors is included in speech production study, which speech production study is one of psycholinguistics concerns.

A side from that, both for the psychological and linguistics point of view, these elements are related each other for it is based elements, we can see that a speaker may be successful in his/her speech. This is a tool to a speaker to give some influences which make his/her speech interesting. This is the tool to a speaker to influence his/her audience in giving them interesting information.

As the topic related to Psycholiguistics, the writer would like to discuss some of them in the next chapter.

From this statement, the writer tries to figure up the problems. The writers would like to analyze the speech errrors in interviews in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV. The writer intends to identify some speech errors, such as:

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silent pause, filled pause, false starts (untraced), false starts (retraced), repeat, correction, interjection, stutter, slip of the tounge with its sub-types.

The problem occures now, whether or not those elements above made by the interviewer and commentators in “Talk Indonesia” Program. In this occasion, the writer is interested in analyzing the speech errors in broadcasting, especially the “talk show program” on television.

1.2 Problem of Analysis

Based on the background mentioned above, the writer is concerned to analyze what speech errors that the interviewer and commentators make in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV.

1.3 Objective of Analysis

The objective of this analysis is to analyze the speech errors made by the interviewer and commentators in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV.

1.4 Significance of Analysis

It is expected that this thesis will be beneficial for the readers to improve their knowledge on psycholinguistics, speech production, and speech errors, especially for those who are interested in speech errors, so that they can avoid in making errors in speaking on talk show program on television or radio.

Reffering to the reasons above, the writer would like to figure up some speech errors that may occur in interviewing by the TV’s interviewer and the

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commentators. The types of errors to be analyzed are according to Clark theory (1977), they are: silent pause, filled pause, false starts (unretraced), false starts (retraced), repeat, correction, interjection, stutter, slip of the tounge with its subtypes.

1.5 Scope of Analysis

The scope that the writer would like to view is about the speech errors of interview expressed by the interviewer and commentators occured during “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV.

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2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1 Method of Analysis

In connection with the title of this thesis, “Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV, the writter applied field, internet and library research.

Besides that, the writer did internet and library research as well to support or to find the theories of speech errors. She also collected some written references which are concerned with the topic and used those materials for this thesis. Some references which support the writer in doing this analysis are those written by: Brown, Clark, Fodor, Mc Neil, Sapir, and other references written by E. M. Hatch’s book about psycholinguistics.

2.2 Data Collecting Method

In recording the data needed, the writer downloaded the data form the index of Metro TV’s website. The conversations are broadcasted every Sunday at 9 am – 9.30 am. In this research, the writer learned nine samples which recorded from March 13th until May 22nd, 2011. The writer only analyzed the speech errors made in some part of the program, which is approximately 3 – 4 minutes long of duration.

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2.3 Procedure of Analysis

This analysis had been done in some steps. Firstly, the writer read some books about psychology and linguistics. Secondly, the writer read some books and articles from internet about phonological units and rules. Thirdly, the writer recorded a talk show program to support this thesis, and then wrote them into some sheets of papers.

After having gained enough information about the study, the writer began to write chapters after chapters attentively. Finally, the writer did some analysis about the speech errors found in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV, and followed by making some conclusions.

2.4 Review of Related Literature

In complying this thesis, the writer had consulted some references concerned with the topic to support the idea of the analysis. Those references are:

- Hatch (1983). Psycholinguistics, A Second language Perspective. This book helps the writer know how Psyholinguistics becomes a discipline of knowledge. This book also explains that Psychology and Linguists contribute each other and become Psycholinguistics.

- Fodor (1974). The Psychology of Language. This book gives some information to the writer about the relationship beetween languange and Psychology.

- Donough (1984). Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching. This book consists of ten chapters. It gives supporting information to the writer as well.

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- Neill (1970). The Acquisition of Language: The Study of Developmental Psycholinguistics. This book contains some information about the possibility of speech errors made by human.

- Allen (1949). Priciples and Types of Speech. This book contains of 5 chapters. In chapter 2, the writer found information about The Process of Preparing A Speech and in chapter 4 is about Adapting Speech to Radio and Television. - Clark and Eve V. Clark (1977). Psychology and Language: An Introduction to

Psycholinguistics. This book is about Psycholiguistics and The classification of speech errors, which are closely concerned with the topic of this thesis.

- Devito (1984). The Elements of Public Speaking. This book consists of necessary information about public speaking, which is related to the topic of this thesis.

- Goldsmith (1995). The Handbook of Phonological Theory. This book contains the explanation about the Phonological units and rules. This book supports this thesis for the writer as well.

- Uebler (2006). A Speech Classification System. This article helps the writer understand more about the the technique of speech classification and the usage of this technology in a set of scenarios.

- Inayah (2009). An Analysis of Speech Errors on SAS FM Radio Program: A Psycholinguistics approach. This thesis gives the writer some information and references about psycholinguistics, especially about speech productions and speech errors.

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- Lumbantobing (2009). Speech errors in interviews of Metro TV’s Indonesia This Morning News Program. This previous thesis helps the writer to get many references of speech errors and know how to make the table of the central analysis of speech errors.

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3. AN OVERVIEW OF` SPEECH PRODUCTION

AND SPEECH ERRORS

3.1. A Description of Psycholinguistics

Language’s are very so important in the life of human being and we, the people who are concerned with this need it so bad. It means that all things we do must get language involved in it.

The writer has already mentioned before that languages play a very important role in human being's life. Practically, people are now concerning with the use of language in their daily life. Language has brought community into a new circumference.

Antilla (1972: 12) cites, " A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which the members of a speech community (social group) cooperate and interact (communicate). In other words. language is a system of communication. Language is systematic (rule-governed, non-random; it shows predictability) and systemic, which means that the total system is divided into subsystems. The definition includes the attribute vocal to emphasize sound aver writing which is a (historically) secondary representation of primary speech."

Since languages are so ever present in human activities and thoughts and since they flow so easily from the tongue of human beings, it is possible on one hand to oversimplify them in our thought and in our plans to study them. Thus, we often hear people who, upon meeting a native speaker of a different language,

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naively ask to be taught that language and wait right then for the process to begin. For some reasons we see people buying some that promise to teach a language with great ease even without a teacher.

It is obviously seen that many people learn a language for they really concern with the development of the language itself'. Some others use a language as the object of their research. The scientific study of a language is called Linguistics. While the people who specialize their research on language is called linguists.

The word linguistics is derived from the Latin lingua, which means language. It is to describe and explain the structure of language used by certain language, but what we are talking here is apparently about general linguistics, which generally studies about language in detail. Linguistics it self is divided into two parts that are furthermore known as macro and micro linguistics.

Psycholinguistics itself is included in macro linguistics, in n which this macro linguistics analyzes language by studying outer parts of language. Psycholinguistics is a hybrid discipline created out of the psychologist's interest in language and the linguist's interest in psychology. The major concerns of psycholinguistics are the psychological processes involved in encoding or speaking, in decoding or comprehending, and in acquiring language. Some would claim that the ultimate aim of psycholinguistics is to describe the operation of the mind--or at least of that portion of the brain dealing with language.

Psycholinguistics is a field that combines methods and theories from psychology and linguistics to derive a fuller understanding of human language. From psychology, it inherits experimental methodology and a body of knowledge,

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about processes in perception, memory, attention, learning, and problem-solving. From linguistics, it derives detailed descriptions of specific languages, rigorous accounts of the shape of grammar, and ideas about the nature of human language (Osgood and Sebeok : 1967). The basic issue that motivated the establishment of psycholinguistics as a separate field of study was the problem of the ‘psychological reality’ of linguistic concepts. For example, speakers of English can form the plurals of nouns by adding the suffix -s. This process allows us to form the plural chandeliers from chandelier. But do we actually use a productive Rule to produce this plural or do we simply retrieve the plural chandeliers from our long-teen memory as a unit? Psycholinguistic research shows that, in fact, both rote and rule are operative at various times in language production (Pinker: 1999).This issue of psychological reality applies to all levels of language structure and usage, including articulators phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonology, morphology, lexicon, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. It applies to all of the constructs of linguistics, including rules, grammars, paradigms, trees, segments, words, and morphemes. When we hear words, do we break them up into their component phonemes and distinctive features (see Phonology), or do we recognize them as wholes? When we listen to sentences, do we actually construct treelike representations of the types proposed by linguists or do we somehow extract meaning without building up formal structures? If we do use formal grammars to listen and speak, what is the exact shape of the grammars that we use? Exploration of the psychological reality of linguistic structures immediately leads us to two related fields of study. The first if developmental

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psycholinguistics, or the study of child language acquisition (Fletcher and MacWhinney : 1995). If we believe that adults form the plurals of nouns by adding -s, we need to consider how young children can learn to apply this rule to produce 'cats' and not 'foots' or 'tooths.' If we argue that they simply learn each form by rote, how can we account for the fact that they make errors like 'feets' and the fact that they can produce the plural for a new word like 'wug' even without having been given that form explicitly? An even more difficult issue involves how rules of might be processed in the brain. Addressing this is question has led psycholinguistics to explore issues in neuro linguistics (Stemmer and Whitaker: 1998) and cognitive neuroscience (Gazzaniga : 1997). When the field of psycholinguistics first developed inthe 1950s, psychologists knew little about the detailed functioning of the human brain and were forced to treat it as a 'black box.' However, as our understanding of the functioning of the human brain grew during the 1980s and 1990s, it became clear that a precise understanding of the functioning of human language would have to make reference to neural mechanisms. The interactive approach to cognition (McClelland and Rumelhart : 1986) used artificial neural networks to model the processing of human language. Directly opposed to connectionism was Fodor's (1983) modular approach to cognition that emphasized the independence of separate cognitive modules for each level of linguistic structure. Researchers have attempted to test the contrasting predictions of the interactive and modular approaches using standard experimental methodology. However, this work has indicated that neither of the strong positions can be maintained (Simpson: 1994). Psycholinguists are now

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trying to link experimental methodology to methods for the imaging of the human brain during language processing. On this level, it appears that processing works in terms of interactive modules.

There are some areas of Psycholinguistics, which are: spoken word recognition, sentence comprehension, sentence production, message construction, memory limitations, and cross-linguistic comparisons. In addition to these core areas, psycho-linguists are involved in the study of reading, conversational interaction, figurative language, text comprehension, aphasia, child language disorders, gesture, prosody, neuro linguistic imaging, animal communication, and language evolution Some of linguists have made their own definitions of Psycholinguistics in diffrenet point of views.

Langacker in(Umar and Napitupulu : 36)cites, “Psycholinguistics is the study of language acquisition and linguistic behavior, as well as the psychological mechanism responsible for them.” The definition above emphasizes

on the limitation between language acquisition and linguistic behavior. The acquisition of language is closely concerned with the language learning, otherwise, linguistic behavior relates to the process of competence and performance. The process of competence and performance are at all times, with other words, the mechanism of Psychology has a very important role.

Stem (1983: 296) cites, "psycholinguistics deals directly with the process of encoding and decoding as they relate states of message to state communicators." This definition stresses on the process of' encoding and understanding to the codes delivered between speaker and listener. Both these process, decoding and

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encoding take place in human mind. The speaker and listener hold an important role in this case. The speaker delivers her or his messages in codes, later on, the listener will try to perceive the meaning of the codes. That is the reason why it needs mutual understanding between the speaker and listener.

Diebold in (Slama, 1973: 39) cites, "Psycholinguistics is concerned in the broadest sense with relation between messages and the characteristics of human individuals who select and interpret them.” Psycholinguistics in the broadest sense simply talks about the relationship between messages delivered and human characteristics in selecting, and interpreting these messages.

Paul Fraisse in (Slama, 1973: 39) cites," Psycholinguistics is the study of' relations between our needs for expression and communication and the means offered to us by a language learned in one's childhood and later." In this way, the limitation emphasizes on the relationship between our need of expression in communication and all the things offered to us through language that we have been learning in our life.

Hartley in (Umar and Napitupulu.- 35) cites," Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterances and language acquisition."What we can take in this statement is how acquisition of language works. It is human brain that processes language to produce any utterances. This is the process of how we can get known the process occurs and as it has meaningful unit which further more can be understood by the hearer.

After having collected some linguists' views on Psycholinguistics, we can further have some ideas on that. These ideas can be such important and even

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crucial in discussing about Psycholinguistics. It can be summarized that psycholinguistics discuss about the process of how people produce language. In interpreting a language, people generally have and follow a set of accepted rules that is concerned with sounds and meanings. If we want to perceive the meanings of listening and speaking, we get to perceive also the meaning of relation between language structure and the process of listening and speaking. The accepted rules of language structure are usually called Grammar.

Grammar helps the study of listening and speaking, therefore, it has been so important for the psychology of language. These rules summarize regularities in the behavior of people speaking a language. Grammatical rules will then lead us toward the understanding of basic law of thought and the nature of human intelligence. Noam Chomsky got to divide this into two. They are competence and performance.

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3.2. Competence and Performance

Grammar is the set of principles which governs the formation and the interpretation on of words, phrases and sentences. Korossy (1993, 1997) extended the theory of knowledge structures by separating no competence and performance. Competence means skills or abilities that enable a person to solve a problem, and cannot be observed directly. Performance is s the behavior, e.g. the answer that is given, and can be observed.

Of course, competence, demands and performance are related. However, competences are properties of persons, while demands are properties of problems. While a demand requires a competence to fulfill it, the relationship is not a one to one relation. For example, the demand "add two natural numbers" may be met by adding mentally, by adding with the help of paper and pencil or by operating a pocket calculator. Similarly, when a performance of a person is observed, it is not obvious what underlying competences have contributed to the solution.

Thus Korossy introduced two spaces: a competence space on a set of (elementary) competences, and a performance space on a set of items. These spaces have the same properties as knowledge spaces, and also prerequisite and surmise relations exist. A state in the competence space describes the competences a person has, while a state in the performance space is given by the set of items that the person can master.

By identifying the relationships between competences and performance on the items, an interpretation function and a representation function can be defined. The interpretation on function maps a problem or an item to the set of all

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competence states that allow for solving the problem. Vice versa, the representation function maps a competence state to the set of problems, which can be mastered with the competences of this state (Korossy 1993, 1997).

In any case, the interpretation function (or the representation function) has to be adjusted when items become obsolete or are inserted into the performance space. The same holds for new competences that might be added to the set of competences, enlarging the competence space. This is simply due to the fact that the domain of the functions changes.

If a new competence is added, the procedure and the problems for determining the new competence space are similar to that for knowledge spaces as relationships between the new and the old competences should be used to avoid a large increase of the number of competence states. Furthermore, for each of the items has to be checked whether the new competence opens up new ways of solving the item. If so, the interpretation function (or the representation function) has to be updated because now there are more competence states, which allow for solving this item. For example, in the elementary school pupils are forbidden to use pocket calculators. Later in high school the competence "using a pocket calculator" comes into play. This competence enables the pupils to solve items of , the type "addition of natural numbers", but also "addition of real numbers". This means the interpretation function has to be changed for both item types.

For deleting a competence from the competence space, the same procedure as deleting an item from a knowledge space is used. If a new item is added to the domain, the following cases may occur, the new item can be solved with the

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existing, competences. In this case, the value of representation function has to be argumented by the new item for all competence states that allow for solving the new item. This means that the result of the interpretation function for the new item will be the set of all competence states that allow for solving the new item, as expected. Mastering the new item requires new competences. Now both the steps for adding new competences (see above) and a new item have to be performed. Schrepp (1993) goes one step further than Korossy and investigates not only the competences of a person, but also the underlying cognitive processes. A model for these processes also allows to derive the competence structure, and by means of the representation function the performance structure can beobtained.

The necessary actions when a new item arises depend on whether the model of the cognitive processes can explain how a person masters the new item. If so, the new structures can be derived easily. Otherwise, the cognitive model has to be extended which may require further research.

One of the major distinctions made in psycholinguistics is that between performance and competence. Performance refers to the actual speaking and comprehending processes, which are influenced by such factors as fatigue, attention, and memory. Competence refers to the speaker-listener's knowledge of the language, uninfluenced by any psychological restraints. Language competence is s the knowledge of a language that enables speakers to construct, or encode, and to understand, or decode, sentences.

Another early distinction made in psycholinguistic models was that between deep and surface structures. Basically, the surface structure of a sentence is s close

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to what is spoken and heard, it is similar to the sentence as performed. Deep structure, however, represents the meaning elements and their relationships and is a level of the sentence that is postulated to account for a wide variety of language phenomena.

Consider these two sentences: "The boy hit the ball" and "The ball was hit by the boy." The sentences mean essentially the same thing, although on the surface they look quite different. The sentences differ in surface structure but not in deep structure; they differ in form rather than in meaning.

Now consider a third sentence: "They are painting clothes." This sentence has more than one meaning, depending on whether painting is taken as a verb or as an adjective. If painting is a verb, then the sentence means "these people are painting pictures of clothes" or "these people are putting paint on clothes"; but if painting is an adjective, then the sentence means "these clothes are used for painting" or "they are the clothes that painters use." This sentence has two possible deep structures, each corresponding to one of the two possible meanings, but with only one surface structure.

Later models have challenged the original assumptions, and even Chomsky altered his views somewhat. The newer models theorize variously that:

surface and deep structures may be closer in meaning than previously thought; more levels of structure may be involved in language processing; other factors, such as the context in which a sentence is communicated, may be more important to meaning than structures; and deep and surface structures may simply be theoretical constructs with no basis in reality. No consensus exists in the field.

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A distinction introduced by Chomsky into linguistic theory but of wider application. Competence refers to a speaker's knowledge of his language as manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which fie may have never seen or heard before. Performance refers to the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non- linguistic features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language. The distinction parallels Varela's distinction between organization and structure. The former refers to the relations and interactions specifically excluding reference to the properties of the refi's components, whereas the latter refers to the relations manifest in the concrete realization of such a system in a physical space. Competence like organization describes the potentiality of a system. Performance like structure describes the forms actually realized as a subset of those conceivable.

3.3. Speech Planning Execution

Speaking and listening are two activities of human being that are sometimes included as basic activities in communication. These activities have become the observation of psychologist purposed for mental activities. We can listen to everyone's ideas, get particular information to shape up our way of thinking, and make up our ideas through the words, while in speaking, we can

freely deliver our ideas into words and expresses our feeling and way of thinking. These activities have become two fundamental things in communication.

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In speaking, people can convey some ideas, knowledge, and information. That is why speaking is fundamentally instrumental act. Speaking, therefore, shows up to be divided into two types of activity ---- planning and execution (Clark: 1977).

Speaker first plans what they want to say based on how they want to change the mental state of their listeners. They then put their plan into execution uttering the seguients, words, phrases, and sentences that make up the plan. The division between planning and execution however is not a clean one. At any time speakers are usually doing a little of both. They are planning what to say next while executing what they had planned moments before. It is impossible to say where planning leaves off and execution begins. Despite this problem, planning and execution are convenient labels for the two ends of speech production. The considerations that come into planning an utterance can generally be distinguished from those that go into execution.

Here are some processes of how speech is planned and executed as explained by Clark (1977). In rough outline the process will simply look like this:

1. _{Discourse plans. The first step for the speakers is to decide what kind of}

discourse they are participating in. It is the case that they are telling a story, conversing, with other people, giving instructions, describing an event, or making a pledge. Each kind of discourse has a different structure, and they must plan their utterances to fit. Each utterance must contribute to the discourse by conveying the correct messages.

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with the correct message, speaker must select one that will do this. They must decide on the speech act, what to put as subject, and given and new information, and what to subordinate to what. They must also decide how they want to convey their message directly, by means of the literal meaning of a sentence, or indirectly, by means of irony, understatement, or other indirect rhetorical devices.

3. _{Constituent plans. Once the speakers decide on the global characteristics of a} sentence, they can begin planning its constituents. For this they must pick the right words, phrases, or idioms to inhabit each constituent and put them in the right order. Although they may have planned the global form of a sentence, they normally select specific words only phrase by phrase.

4. _{Articulatory program. As specific words are chosen, they are formed into an} articulatory program in a memory buffer capable of holding all the words of a planned constituent at once. It contains a representation of the actual phonetic segments, stresses, and intonation pattern that are to be executed at the next step.

5. _{Articulation. The final step is to execute the contents of the articulatory}

program. This is done by mechanism that add sequence and timing Id (fie articulatory program, telling the articulatory muscles what they should do. This step results in audible sounds, the speech the speaker intended to produce.

In speaking, meaning is s turned into sounds, and in listening, sounds are turned into meaning. The parallels are there, of course, but the differences are

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much more striking. At the sound end, speaking requires the motor activation of the speech organs, while listening consists of an auditory analysis of the speech signal. These two activities involve different organs−the mouth versus the ear--and distinct mental faculties—motor activation versus auditory analysis. At the meaning end, speakers begin with the intention of affecting listeners and turn this intention into a plan of an utterance; at the other end, listeners recognize the speakers' plan and infer their intentions. Again, these two activities are quite distinct. The illusion of similarity is engendered by the fact that speaking and listening both deal with the -same structural units: phonetic segments, words, constituents, sentences, speech acts, and discourse structure. But just because speaking and listening have a medium in common; they need not involve similar processes.

3.3.1. The Ideal Delivery

A correct way of executing a sentence is simply a definition of the Ideal Delivery, in which a sentence can be delivered without any errors. People can fury master what they want to say and execute it perfectly, that is the way they are giving an ideal deliver. In this speech production, the ideal delivery is the focus, with other words, It has become the central importance of this study. These theories explain that human beings strive for the ideal delivery and each deviation leads to something that has gone along with the violation of planning or execution.

In the ideal delivery, almost all types of clauses are executed in a single fluent speech train under the smooth intonation contour. On the other hand, the

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grammatical Junctures between these clauses may contain momentary pauses as proposed by Clark (1977). Language has long been designed like this may take a breath without making interruption of fluent speech, meaning that the speaker may stop in n a moment to take a breath in his or her precise clauses to allow the right conception of his clauses to the listeners. In the ideal delivery, the speaker may breathe at Junctures but not within the clauses.

Ideal delivery itself has following characteristics. The execution of every clause junctures needs an amount of time. Every single clause may vary little from one execution to another next execution and each pause which shows up within clause are obligatory.

Ideal delivery can be frequently heard in the speech of actors, newsreaders, orators, politicians, etc. They can produce all types of utterances in a fluent and. smooth intonation. It is real that all of the people are eager to be able to execute the ideal delivery because of some positive points it can indicate when we speak and produce the utterances fluently

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3.3.2. Sources of Planning Difficulty

1. Cognitive Difficulty

Cognitive difficulty might be presumed as the first source of speech planning difficult}r is quite hard to explain those things because it will of course take longer time to pick appropriate words to express the objects that are going to be explained. There are more hesitations scattered through the explanations than through the description, presumably because it was harder to come with the explanations and right words to express them. If these suggestions are correct, topics those are though to talk about affect to levels of planning. They delay the planning of sentence skeleton and they delay the selecting of words to each constituent of the skeleton.

2. Social Factors

The next source of speech planning difficulty is social reasons. There are actually two social reasons here that are going to be described. Situational anxiety and social reason are the main reasons here.

When people talk about topics they are anxious about, they tend to produce more hesitations in their speaking. According to Mahl (1956), one possibility is that anxiety disrupts the planning and execution processes generally. Speakers become tense and their planning and execution become less efficient. Another possibility is that what people talk about when they are anxious is simply more difficult cognitively. It may be very difficult to verbalize the abstract anxiety states they want to express, and so they spend more time planning, groping for

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just the right words. Under this alternative the anxiety pause have the same source as the pause of any other cognitively difficult talk. It is safest to assume that situational anxiety affects planning and execution both of these ways.

Speakers must make a clear when they still have something to say and when they are finished. If they hesitate too long at any point, someone else may take over the conversation. In this way, the speakers should make clear when they want to convey from the beginning to the end without any hesitation.

3.3.3. Classification of Speech Errors

Planning and execution, so the evidence suggest, are interleaved in a complex way so that extra planning may lead to delays in execution. In talk, people always think of what they want to convey and this process involves our articulatory program. The first thing we do is to start the conversation, then pick the correct words, which can express what we are thinking of In this way, it is the time how to start, what to get involved with, what to omit, and what words are correct to use. When we pass through this process, we may hesitate a lot and get into the position of being anxious what to say next after the first utterance. Even though what we are going to say is in our mind, but we may produce speech errors in our speaking. Common types of speech errors can be seen as follows:

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1. Silent Pause

A period of no speech between words can be called silent pause. Speed of talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum of such pausing. People who speak slowly hesitate a lot and when they speed up their rate of words, they do it by eliminating the pauses, not by shortening the words. This kind of speech error is usually symbolized by [ // ].

For example : - Wrap up the // food!

- Let's make some // cookies!

2. Filled Pause

The next type of speech, errors is filled pause. The period of no word between

the speeches is filled up by the expressions such as "er ", "ah ","mm “uh." or any others that fill the gap when the speaker is speaking. This second type of speech error is symbolized by […]

For Example : - Wrap up the, ah, the food! - Let's make some, er, cookies:'

3. Repeats

This must be the third type of speech errors. Repeats occur when the speakers repeat one or more words in an utterance. When people talk very fast and spontaneously, this kind of speech errors will happen. Repeats can be symbolized by [ / ].For example :

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- Let's make some cookies / some cookies!

4. Retraced False Starts

Retraced false starts are another type of speech errors. They can simply mean the corrections of a word. It also includes of one or more words before the corrected words. This kind of error is symbolized by [\]

For example : - Wrap up the drink \the food! - Let's make some bread \ cookies!

5. Unretraced False Starts

The next type of speech errors is unretraced false starts. Something that makes them different is that unretraced.false starts do not include the repetition of one or more words ina sentence before the words that are being corrected. There

is no repetition of the words before the corrected words. What we are to do is correct the corrected words to the right ones directly. This type of errors is usually marked by [\\].

For example : - Wrap up the drink \\ food!

- Let's make some bread \\ cookies!

6. Corrections

The category of speech error that is called corrections is quite similar to false starts. Something that makes them different is that corrections contain an explicit "I mean", "or rather", or "that is-, or "well" to mark the phrases as a correction.

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Corrections occur when the speaker's better utterances to say and then the corrections they make take over the place of previous words, which are considered to be misplanned. This type can be marks when they are breaking their speech. Corrections are symbolized by [—]

For example: -Wrap up the drink - I mean, the food! - We all like her - that is Britney Spears.

7. Stutters

Stutters occurs as abnormal hesitations, repetitions, and prolongations that may be accompanied by gestures, grimaces, or other bodily movements indicating a struggle to speak, blocking of speech, anxiety, or avoidance of speech. It is a disorder, which we have all heard and recognized, or perhaps even experienced before, it's the most frequent type of fluency disorder.

According to Victoria Fromkin (1995) in her book Errors in Linguistic Performance: Slips of the Tongue. Ear. Pen, and Hand, All individuals are disfluent at times, but what differentiates the person who stutters from someone with normal speech disfluencies is the kind and amount of the disfluencies. The average person will have between 7-10% of their speech disfluent. These disfluencies are usually word or phrase repetitions, fillers (um, ah) or interjections. When a speaker experiences disfluencies at a rate greater than 10% they may be stuttering. Stuttering is often accompanied by tension and anxiety.

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The types of disfluencies in stuttering may also be different. Sound or sellable repetitions, silent "blocks", and prolongations (unnatural stretching out of a sound) and facial grimaces (tics) can be presented. Stuttering has a strong genetic link. People who stutter are very likely to have inherited their "stuttering potential" or "stuttering predisposition" from their mother, father, grandmother or grandfather, with 50 to 75% of people who stutter having at least one relative who also stutters.

a. Repetition

1. of sounds (b-b-b-ball) 2. of syllables (da-da-daddy)

3. of parts of words (foot-foot-football) 4. of whole words (pa-pa-paper)

5. of phrases (how old- how old- are you?)

b. Prolongation - a vowel or consonant in a word is lengthened (rrrrrr-rabbit, mmmm-me too, aaaaaask him).

c. Blocks- periods of silence- person seems unable to make a sound, attempting to force words out with their mouth open or lips closed firmly (she---'s here, r ---- ub it out)

d. Pitch and loudness rise-as the person repeats and prolongs sounds/words, the pitch and loudness of his/her voice increases.

e. Tremors, uncontrolled quivering of the tongue or lips as the person repeats/prolongs sounds.

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g. Fear as the person approaches a word that gives him/her trouble, he/she may display expressions of fear; they may become upset and say things like "My words won't come out" or "I can't say it.

h. Irregular breathing most often heard when the person begins sentences/phrases, speech may occur inspurts as the person struggles to keep airflow and voice sounds flowing.

i. Embarrassment, the person will have a sense of shame because of their inability to produce a word causing the person to avoid some conversations altogether (they may wait for another person to answer the phone all the time, or they may walk around a store looking for something for an hour instead of just asking an employee where to find a product).

j. Related behaviors foot tapping, eye blinks, head turns, etc. to try and avoid stuttering.

k. Variability in stuttering behavior depends on the speaking situation, the communication on partner, and the speaking task (the person who stutters might have an easier time talking to a speech- pathologist in an enclosed office than in a classroom among his/ her peers, or they will be able to sing fluently but stutter when talking to a friend).

8. Interjections

Interjections are words or expressions, which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjections are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence. They have no grammatical connection to

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the sentence in which tile) occur, therefore, interjections may stand alone. In addition, if an interjection is mild, it is followed by a comma.

If it is strong, it is followed by an exclamation point. In no instance should an interjection with a comma or exclamation point be followed by a period or comma respectively. Examples include words like: Oh, Darn, Hey, and Well. The following are two examples of the proper usage of interjections in sentences. - Well, I suppose I should stay home and study this weekend.

- Darn! I broke my fingernail.

9. Slip of The Tongue

Slip of the tongue is one type of speech errors. They are usually symbolized by[→]. Slips of the tongue are resulted from repressed thoughts which are revealed by the particular errors which a speaker makes (Freud, 1901). There are several subtypes of slips of the tongue.

a. Anticipation is when a speaker intends to say 'take me to ride," but says instead "take me to tide," anticipating the "p" at the beginning of "ride" in the speaker's pronunciation of "take.”

b. Perseveration is the opposition of anticipation. e.g. Take me to ride → take met to tide

c. Reversal is two segments are interchanged. Reversal happened in two syllables.

e.g. lighter→ tighler

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and the second half of other., e.g. Boys and Girls → Boris

e. Haplologies are the speaker leaves out a short stretch of speech. e.g. unanimity → unamity

f. Misderivations are the speaker somehow attaches the wrong suffix or prefix to the word.

e.g. enjoyment → enjoity

g. Word Substitution is the speaker produces a word that is wrong, but typically related either semantically or phonologically to the word intended.

e.a. My sister went to the Grand Canyon → The Grand Canyon went to my sister.

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4. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SPEECH ERRORS

MADE IN INTERVIEW

4.1. Types of Speech

According to Allan H. Monroe (1949), there are several basic types of speech based on the purpose of the speakers who want to convey their ideas. The types of speech are:

a. The Speech to Entertain

The speech to entertain seeks to make a point through the creative, organized use of the speaker's humor. Their purpose is to relax the audience, establish some interaction with them, and set the mood for the rest of the show. If a speaker combines the following five guidelines with what he already knows about developing a public speech, he will discover that a speech to entertain is not only challenging but also fun to present.

The first requirement for "a speech to entertain" is that it makes a point or communicates a thesis, no less than the most carefully crafted informative or persuasive speech.

Second is creative. A speaker "speech to entertain” should be original and creative. It should give the audience a glimpse of the unique view of the world.

Third is organized. It must have an introduction, body, and conclusion just as informative and persuasive speeches do. In other words, "the speech to entertain” must convey a sense of moving toward some logical point and achieving closure after adequately developing that point."The speech to entertain is difficult to do

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well for a simple reason: Most people associate entertainment with lots of laughter and feel that if the audience is not laughing a good deal, they are not responding favorably to the speech. But stop to consider for a moment the range of things that entertain a speaker, from the outrageous antics of the comedian Gallagher to the muttered ramblings of Steven Wright. The humor should be adapted to his topic, the audience, the occasion, and speakers own personal style. Four suggestions should guide the use of humor.

Good humor is memorable and relevant to the general purpose. if humor does not relate to the point a speaker is making, the audience will be diverted from rather than directed to the key idea.

Finally, "a speech to entertain" benefits from spirited delivery. We have often heard good speeches to entertain and looked forward to reading transcripts of them later. We were usually disappointed. The personality, timing, and interaction riteraction with the audience that made the speech lively' and unforgettable could not be captured on paper. We have also read manuscripts of speeches to entertain that promised to be dynamic when presented.

b. The Speech to Inform

One of the primary functions of speech itself is to provide an avenue for the transfer of knowledge. Somebody is able to give other people that which he has acquired by his own experience by means of speech. The capability to convey information in an understandable form through public speech is therefore important.

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The manner of delivering an informative speech will depend almost entirely upon the subject that the speaker is talking about and the audience he is addressing a clear understanding of the ideas presented besides to create an interest in the information.

c. The Speech to Stimulate (or Actuate through Emotional Stimulation)

Another function of speech is to raise the ideals and ambitions of men above the mediocre level where they habitually fall by stimulating emotional attitudes. "The speech to stimulate" is purposed to arouse enthusiasm or to deepen emotion, but this is not all of it.

In presenting "the speech to stimulate", the presentation should be dynamic, which means that the outward expression of this dynamic quality will, of course, vary with the specific purpose of the speaker's speech and the occasion.

d. The speech to Convince (or to Actuate through Conviction)

The preceding speech explained how support may sometimes be secured by stimulating emotion and arousing enthusiasm when people already agree in principle with the speaker. In this way, "the speech to convince" is closely concerned with conviction, with the necessity not only of arousing n audience, but also of changing existing beliefs or instilling new ones.

"The speech to convince" is purposed to secure belief or action based on belief in which it makes the member of the audience want to do what the speaker proposes rather than feels that they have to. Moreover, there are two subsidiary

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purposes that a speaker should keep in mind that is to impress the listeners with a motive for believing, i.e., self-preservation, power, profit, pleasure, pride, etc. Furthermore, it is to convince them of the logic of the speaker's proposal, i.e., the relation between cause and effect, theory and practice, etc. Sometimes, the speaker shall have to create or to retain an emotional attitude favorable to belief in the proposal such as anger and sympathy.

Everything depends upon the speech situation, and these situations vary more widely than for any other type of speaking. The style of delivery should be adapted to the occasion and to the audience. Moreover, the delivery before the audience that is apathetic to the situation will differ from that which the speaker will employ before an interested group, or one that is hostile. In general, however, a straightforward, energetic presentation that suggests enthusiasm without seeming overemotional is the most effective in securing conviction.

e. Answering Questions and Objection

When someone asks a question or raises an objection to something a speaker has said, the ultimate object of speaker's answer will be to further the particular purpose of the speech about which the questions are asked. The immediate purpose of the answer to the questions, however, will be "to satisfy the questioner”.Questions are asked for one of two reasons – to secure additional information or to raise se an objection to what has been said. To satisfy the questioner, therefore, a speaker must either give the questioner the additional facts he demands or convince him that his objection is invalid. The second purpose is to

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satisfy others in the audience. “Sometimes a speaker may not care what the "to person who questioned he thinks, but the point he has raised may be an important one in the minds of other members of the audience. Therefore, a speaker's answer must be directed not only to the questioner himself but also to the others whose objection he has voiced. The last purpose is "to retain speaker's prestige”

The method a speaker will use in answering questions or objections must depend upon the real reasons of those who raise them. A speaker will answer the mere troublemaker in way different from that in which he will answer one who is sincerely interested.

4.2. Seven Essentials of Speech Preparation

When we are faced into a situation in which we have to expand our ideas into into speech, it would be possible and considerable if we have some steps to be undertaken. These steps will then comprise the essentials that we shall follow if' we want to be a highly effective speaker. It will not be always possible or perhaps even advisable, to arrange the works in just this order. Ordinarily, of course, he speaker shall want to survey the problem before he starts shaping p the speech and he will have to build a speech before he can practice it. But regardless of the order in n which a speaker considers the seven items listed, a thorough preparation will include them all as described by Steve Allen (1986). The seven essentials of speech preparation are listed as follows:

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a. Determining the Purpose of the Speech

Too often a speaker arise to "say a few words" with no idea what he is speaking for. When this happens, the net result is merely the consumption of a certain amount of time. It is not enough merely to center the speech about a definite subject; the speech should be thought of always in terms of the response desired from the audience. The speakers may want the audience to be entertained, or to understand a difficult point, or to believe a proposition, ton, or to become emotionally aroused, or to take some definite action. In any event a speaker must think of his speech as an instrument of utility - a means of getting a reaction. If a speaker determines his purpose for speaking and keep in mind the response he. seeks, a great deal of time that might otherwise be consumed with nonessentials can be saved.

b. Analyzing the Audience and Occasion

If the speech is to have its maximum effect, a speaker must get in mind early in the process of preparation a clear picture of the conditions under which he is to speak. Many an audience has been lulled to sleep by the fact that the speaker seemed to be addressing an imaginary audience. People like to feel that they are being talked to directly - that they are at least silent partners in the conversation. Further, they do not like to have too heavy a diet of thought forced upon them at a jovial ovial gathering, nor are they pleased by facetious comments in the face of

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tragedy. Whenever possible, therefore, it is to find out ahead of time what sort of gathering a speaker is to address.

A speaker should make a point of finding out what kind of people will make up the audience, what brings them together, what their age and social position are, who else is going to speak to them, and what will be their probable attitude toward the speaker and his purpose. Sometimes, of course, a speaker will not be able to learn all these things in advance, and a speaker will have to adapt himself to conditions as he finds them; but the more accurately he can picture the audience and occasion beforehand, the easier this adaptation will be when the time comes to speak.

c. Selecting and Narrowing the Subject

As was pointed earlier, the choice of subject will sometimes be made for a speaker. But whether he is given a subject or choose it himself, he must narrow it down to fit the time limits of his speech and the interest and capacity of his audience. Moreover, his own interest and knowledge must be considered, whenever possible, he shall try to talk about something with which he can find out more than his audience already knows. A speaker should try to speak on a subject in which he is vitally interested and on which he can make a real contribution.

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d. Gathering the Material

Having completed the survey of the problem by considering the purpose, audience, and subject, a speaker is now read to begin building a speech. Almost always, however, he will find that what he already knows is not enough

A speaker will want to gather additional information facts, illustrations, stories, and examples with which a speaker can develop his speech. It is very often necessary to inquire from those who know more about the subject and to investigate the written sources. Newspapers, magazines, books, report - these form a valuable storehouse of information, which is readily available in library. Gradually, what a speaker already knows and the new material he finds can be brought together, sifted, and made ready for the detailed building of the speech.

e. Making An Outline of the Speech

As implied in the last paragraph, a speaker will make a rough sketch of the points in his speech even before he makes a search for material to develop it; but the detailed outline cannot be drawn up until he has most of the information at his disposal. With the material at hand, a speaker set down the main points he expects to make in the order he expects to make them. This outline should be worked out in considerable detail at first in order to insure unity and coherence in his speech; later a skeleton outline can be made to fix the points in his memory

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f. Wording the Speech

With the detailed outline before him, there are two ways in which a speaker may develop the wording of his speech. He may write it out word for word and memorize it, or a speaker may lay the outline before him and "talk it throu,6" several times, composing his sentences orally in a variety of ways a speaker finds the most effective way of a statement. Which of these methods is better will depend on the individual speaker and the type of occasion, though the method of oral composition is recommended because of its greater flexibility. On this point, however, a speaker will do well to seek the advice of his instructor.

g. Practicing Aloud

A speaker is now ready for the final step in his preparation, the actual practice for oral presentation- The best method for most speakers is to take the outline or manuscripts and, in the privacy of a room, to talk aloud, following the sequence of ideas written. This should be done several times until the sequence of ideas is clearly in mind. The outline or manuscript should then be laid aside and thought through silently, point by point, to make sure that the ideas have really become fixed in mind. Above all, practice makes the manner of speaking seem personal.

The amount or oral practice a speaker will need depends entirely on his ability, experience, and knowledge of the subject. It is not wise to practice a speech so often that a speaker becomes stale on it, but he must be sure that he has the material well in mind. As general rule, the less experience he has had in speaking, the more oral practice will be required.

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4.3. Television and Public Speaking

Television is important to public speaking because it shapes the way we think about communication skills. According to Bandura's Social Learning theory, much of our learning is done through modeling or imitating the behavior of those we wish to emulate. As a result, prominent television personalities have become the role models of the latter half of this century. Not only are they role models, they also set the standard for what we expect life should be like, whether it be life in an emergency ward of a hospital, the family, or a police station. Although television is not reality, it plays an enormous role in determining; what we think reality should be. For our purposes, international news personalities like Tom Brokaw and Peter Jennings shape our expectations of how we communicate and present ourselves in professional speaking situations. If our communication is dramatically different from theirs, we are seen as incompetent, boring, and worst of all, lacking credibility.

Although we may be good communicating one on one or in small groups, we may feel uncomfortable standing up behind a lectern speaking to even a small audience. For some reason we think there is a difference between speaking before a group and speaking one on one. It may be true to a small degree; however television has made it much less true than in the past. On television, all communication is one on one. Connie Chung, Barbara Walters, and Peter Jennings talk to us and we listen as individuals. They don't shout at us, pound their fists or otherwise make grand gestures. They don't speak in a monotone or

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appear to read from a text. They communicate in a formal, but personal way. We can learn from them by following a few tips.

Whether a speaker is presenting dry statistics, selling a new operating system to management, or making a pitch to enter a new market, don't approach communication as though his job is merely to present facts. Like a good story, his presentation should have a clear point of view, a catchy beginning, a middle that vill hold his audience's attention, and a memorable end. It should have interesting, characters, a plot, dialogue, humor, and illustration. It should be rehearsed, but rehearsed to remember the ideas, not the exact words. To much rehearsal. especially as an attempt to memorize everything, may cause more problems than it cures.

Television anchors establish eye contact. If they read from the text, they usually read from a teleprompter kit close to the lens of the camera so that they look as though they are looking at him. Even then, it is possible to detect that they are not looking quite at him, which distracts from their credibility. Eye contact is essential to establishing credibility. We don't have to be told that we can't trust people who won't look us in the eye, it's hard wired into our psyche. It wasn't difficult to predict that Bob Dole would lose the 1996 presidential election. Dole could not establish eve contact with the camera. His eyes darted up and down and around and usually away from the camera. Good eye contact is deliberate and slow paced. If a speaker is talking to an audience, he may look at each person in the audience. He may have heard that he can look over the heads of your audience and focus on the back of the room. This is bad advice. Eye contact is essential to

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establishing credibility, and credibility is the most critical aspect of communication. A speaker's job, like the television anchors, is to establish one on one bonding. Up to seventy percent of communication is nonverbal. Eyes, dress, posture. body shape, grooming, gestures, etc., are important important to effective communication.

Even when he is not talking, he is communicating. If he is listening to people, pay attention, smile, nod, he can do whatever he can-- to indicate that he is interested. The most important thing is that a speaker should listen.He cannot think nor formulate arguments, etc. As a speaker, he needs to pay attention to feedback from your audience. If a person in the audience seems distracted, bored, uninterested, a speaker should focus on that person. This is another reason why eye contact is important. He can't get feedback from his audience if he is not looking at the people in it. Dress, hairstyle, body shape, etc., are also important to nonverbal communication.

Attractive people are more credible than unattractive people. That is a fact of life. and there's no getting around it. We will never see an over weight television anchor; he or she would first be admonished to get in shape and fired if he/she failed to do so. If a speaker wants to be credible, he should stay in shape by exercising and maintaining a healthy diet. People who appear healthy and vigorous are more credible than weak, unhealthy people. That's why athletes have so much credibility and make so much money in our society. We may have ever noticed the President of USA. He runs up the stairs to the door. Running up the stairs to enter the plane is more than getting on an airplane; it's a communication

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act. Franklin Roosevelt was confined to a wheelchair; however, most American citizens did not know it because he insisted on being photographed from the waist up. We don't want handicapped people in positions of power. That may not be politically correct, but it's a fact.

Most of us gesture when we speak one on one. However, many of us have no idea about what to do with our hands when we are in front of an audience. The answer is that we do the same thing in front of an audience that we do when we speak one on one. We have heard reports that some high school speech teachers tell their students not to use gestures. This is bad advice. Gestures are an important to effective communication. The problem is that when we get nervous our hands may shake and we want to hide them. Or, we may fiddle with a pen, scratch our nose, or find another way for our hands to distract the audience from our message. If a speaker can't figure out what to do with his hands or they misbehave on their own, he may want to rest them on a lectern or put them behind him. However, putting one's hands behind is a sign of submission and lack of confidence, with subsequent loss of credibility; so that's not a very good idea. It's best to let them help a speaker communicate the way he normally does.

Television is a visual medium, and because of its strong influence upon our expectations, we expect visual stimuli in presentations. If Dan Rather wants to describe the outrageous price of breakfast cereal, we see a box of cereal on the screen and testimony from a mother complaining about the price. If he describes the growth of the stock market over the last year, we see a line chart plotting the growth. We may also see a clip of the floor of the New York Stock Exchange on a

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busy day. Each one of your presentations should have at least two visual aids included. ncluded. Whenever you discuss numbers, use a chart or table to describe the numbers. Numbers make people's eyes glaze over. A speaker should keep his audience's attention with pictures or other visual aide.

Whether a speaker is speaking to a small group in a board or committee meeting or an audience of over one thousand at a trade show, he should make his presentation intimate. He may move from behind and back to the lectern at strategic times (usually at transition points). If he uses a microphone, he should M- to use a small wireless mike attached to his lapel or tie so that he can move around. It is very important to engage particular people in the audience for short periods by moving toward them and establishing eve contact.

Nothing will cause the premature death of his audience faster than a speech that he reads. Eye contact is lost and gone forever. Unless he is one of a small fraction of one percent of people on this earth, lie will slip into a monotone at the second word. His voice will not project. He will most likely mispronounce words. In general, he will screw up the whole speech.

If a speaker uses notes, he should use a keyword outline. Many novice speakers worry so much about not making a mistake that they want to rehearse and memorize every word of their speech. In lieu of that, the), rely on reading the text so that they won't flub. The biggest flub is to communicate words and not ideas. We need to memorize the ideas or write them down on cards as single words as a roadmap for our speech. Once we know the ideas we want to communicate, the words will come.

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ideas are easy to catch up and their words are easy to understand by the listener. Furthermore, there are some guess commentators in this program who sometimes take Sarah’s or Wimar’s sheet. They come from several people with different occupations, such as a politician, a diplomat, an actress, and even businessman.

After examining the data, the writer could draw a conclusion that all speakers in “Talk Indonesia” Program most produced filled pause. Filled pause

were produced for 79 (seventy nine) times. The next error they most produced were repeats and corrections. Each of them were produced for 45 (forty five) times. It was followed by silent pause for 34 (thirty four) times, stutters for 27 (twenty seven) times, interjections for 25 (twenty five) times, retraced false start

for 17 (seventeen) times, Unretraced false start also share for 11 (eleven) times, while slip of the tongue was produced for 8 (eight) times.

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6. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESIONS 6.1 Conclusions

We can not seperated speaking skill from talk show program. This activity need a specific speaking skill for it is somewhat difficult to fullfil on how the topic discussion should be presented. If the speakers in the talk show program can not wholely comprehend the ideas and thoughts their are conveying to the audience not know the way how it should be presented, these reasons will eventually lead them to production of speech errors.

Speech errors can be found in talk show program on television. We watch the programs, but sometimes we do not really keep an eye on it. Instead of saying, speakers in talk show program tend to make produce speech errors though the number of speech errors may vary among the speakers.

This case can be clearly found in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV that the writer has analyzed. We can see that the interviewer and the commentators in this TV program made certain speech errors in saying ideas and arguing one another during the program. The reason of this case, however, has benn clearly explained in previous chapter. The writer does not mean to say that this case is usually found in the way of speakers doing the talk shows but this case is only a little part of our social circumstances that we, the people can also make the same case. Like the sun can not be separated from the earth, speech errors can not be seperated from human speaking as well.

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6.2. Suggestions

In writing this thesis, first of all, there is a hope that this thesis can be beneficial for the readers especially newsreaders on TV talk show program, in the future to open up our eyes and mind to see the reality and put the errors into correct forms. As we all know now, speaking is one of important skills for any languages including English that people should master in order to produce good language. Secondly, the writer hope by learning speech production process we can avoid producing speech errors, at least we can reduce the errors now on. Finally, the writer also hopes that this thesis can give the readers some information that is need by all people about speech and all things related to it.

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Analysis of Speech Errors in “Talk Indonesia” Program on Metro TV