c. Children’s capacity for indirect learning
Children capacity of indirect learning sometimes could be frustrating for teachers, but this too can be turned into teachers’ advantages. Activities that make
them concern to do the task and not focus on the language is a good way of learning. Guessing is one very good example. They are not trying to learn, but
they are concentrating on trying to guess. However, by the time they have finished the repeated guessing, they will have confirmed words and structures they only
half knew in the beginning.
d. Children’s instinct for play and fun
From experience we all know that children have an enormous capacity for finding and making fun. No matter how well the teachers explain an activity, there
is often someone in the class who produces a version of their own. One example is when children were doing an activity which asked them to follow directions
round a map. The cards and maps they were using had been clipped together with a paper clip. One pair proceeded to ‘drive’ the paper clip round the map each time
they traced the route. They made appropriate concerning noises as they turned left or right, and reserved with much vocal squealing of breaks when they went
wrong. In this way, trough their senses of fun and play, children were living the language for real.
e. The role of imagination
Games are not the only way in which individual personalities surface in the classroom, there is also the whole area of imaginative thinking. Language
teaching should be concerned with real life, but it would be great pity to forget
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imagination and fantasy. The act of fantasising, of imagining, is very much an authentic part of being a child. Imagination and fantasy are part of reality for
children. This imagination in children provides another very powerful stimulus for real language use.
f. The instinct for interaction and talk
Children instinct for interaction and talk gives much advantage in the primary classroom. This capacity is important bid to acquire a language but
sometimes unwanted in a classroom. Children need to talk. Without talking they cannot become good at talking. The only way to learn to use language is to use it.
Thus, teachers should make sure that this desire to talk is working for learning not against learning.
The explanations in previous paragraphs tell us that all children have both prior and cognitive knowledge. Unfortunately, children have better memories but
shorter concentration Willis, 1996. Ideally, their characteristic could trigger accomplishment of language learning by applying relevant learning strategy.
Therefore, teachers are supposed to provide suitable learning strategy or activities to help the children to acquire L2 effectively.
2.1.4 Task Based Learning
Some approaches commonly put teachers in the exclusive place such as manager, controller, and instructor in learning activity. They also do not consider
tasks as meaningful part of language learning and focus on language structure and less to the interaction or language production. It was assumed that language
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teaching which focuses only on language structure was not enough and needed to be accompanied by activity to express meaning. To be able to make their prior and
cognitive knowledge operate, children need learning strategy that provides interesting, fun, and challenging activities and then could gain children confidence
and satisfaction in learning process. Considering all things needed to make the L2 learning work effectively, in designing the designed materials the writer chose
Task based learning as an approach. Task–based learning is one approach in teaching and learning activities
which enable the teacher to be creative to assign great amount of students’ activities tasks. Task based learning TBL is a part of Communicative
Language Teaching CLT which its learning process is based on task materials. TBL pays careful considerations of how people learn. It pays attentions to what
social setting and psychological factors would contribute to the acquisition of L2. Teaching activities were emphasized in terms of meaning and information
exchange to one another. Actually, the teaching techniques required for task based learning are not
very different from those of others language teaching. The differences lie in the ordering and weighting of activities and the fact that there is greater amount of
students’ activity Willis, 1996. Whereas, Richards and Rodgers 2001: 223 summarize that the Task-Based Learning refers to an approach of language
learning which focus on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching-learning. When the learners try to complete the
tasks, the learners will have the opportunity to work with others, then, the learners
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may interact with the other to solve the task given. They will have the opportunity to share their meaning and when the learners come to this process, they will listen
to and learn with each other about the language use during interacting. Through this approach, teachers are expected to be as creative as possible
in designed task as learning tools. Because the learners learn through completing the tasks given, tasks should be suitable to the learners’ level of education and
able to gain learners’ motivation to complete it. Therefore, tasks play an important role in this study. As has been stated in the previous chapter, task in this study is
any kind of activity or action in the classroom which either involves language production or not. The writer intends to design several tasks in her designed
materials to challenge and interest the students to learn and use English. Thus, through tasks Domby students can learn new things and enjoy the learning
process. In applying TBL in the design materials, there are several things that
should be put into consideration. Richards and Rodgers 2001: 225 mention several key areas of concern in TBL. They are stated as follows:
1. Analysis of real-world task-use situations 2. The translation of these into teaching tasks descriptions
3. The detailed design of instructional tasks 4. The sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom teachingtraining.
Richards and Rodgers 2001: 228 also underline fundamental assumptions of TBL theory. They are:
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a. Tasks provide both input and output processing necessary for language acquisition.
b. Task activity and achievement are motivational. c. Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular
pedagogical purposes. Willis 1996: 40, in A framework for Task-Based Learning, mentions the
framework of Task-Based Learning. The framework consists of three phases: pre- task, task cycle, and language focus.
a. The Pre-task phase introduces the class to the topic and the task, activating topic-related words and phrases. Pre-task activities to explore topic language
should actively involve all learners give them relevant exposure, and above all, create interest in doing a task on this topic.
b. The task cycle offers learners the chance to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out the task, and then to improve that language, under
teacher guidance, while planning their reports of the task. c. Language focus allows a closer study of some of the specific feature naturally
occurring in the language used during the task cycle. The framework of Task-Based Learning proposed by Willis can be seen in
Figure 2.2.
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Figure 2.3: Willis’ Task Based framework Willis, 1996: 52
2.1.4.1 Task Types
Since the writer uses task-based learning as an approach in this study, the task type would be vital for this study. There would be a lot of things to be
considered in designing instructional material for the first grade of Domby. Consequently, the writer needs task type reference from the proponents of task
based language learning. As quoted by Larsen and Freeman 2000: 148, Prabhu year mentions
three types of Task in TBL. First is information-gap activity which involves a
Language Focus
Analysis Practice
Pre-Task
Introduction to topic and Task
Task Cycle
Task Planning Report
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transfer of given information from one person to another or change the form to another or even from one place to another. For example, students have to match
the words in English and their meaning in Indonesia. Second is opinion-gap activity which involves deriving some new information from given information
through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns? One example is teacher’s time table on the basis of
given class timetable. Third is opinion-gap activity which involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to the given
information. Another typology comes from Pattison. As quoted by Larsen and Freeman,
Pattison 1987 sets out seven tasks and activity types. They are: 1. Question and answers
2. Dialogue and role play 3. Matching activities
4. Communication strategies 5. Picture and pictures stories
6. Puzzle and problems 7. Discussion and decision
Willis 1996: 26-28 also proposes six types of tasks. In selecting the tasks or creating the tasks, teachers should consider the level of the students. The brief
introduction for each type is stated as follows.
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1. Listing Listing may seem unimaginative, but in practice, listing tasks tend to generate a
lot of talk as learners explain their ideas. The processes involved are: Brainstorming, in which learners draw their own knowledge and experience
either as class or in pairsgroups Fact finding, in which learners finds things out by asking each other or other
people and referring to a book, etc The outcome would be the complete list or possibly a draft mind map.
2. Ordering and sorting
These tasks involve four main processes: Sequencing item, actions or events in logical or chronological order
Ranking items according to personal values or specified criteria Categorising items in given groups or grouping them under given heading
Classifying items in different ways, where the categories themselves are not given
3. Comparing
Broadly, these tasks involve comparing information of a similar nature but from different sources or versions in order to identify common points and or
differences. The processes involved are: Matching to identify specific points and rate them to each other
Finding similarities and things in common Finding differences
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4. Problem solving
These tasks demand upon people intellectual and reasoning power. It is quite challenging, but engaging and often satisfying to solve. The examples for these
tasks are short puzzle such as logic problem, while real life problems may involve expressing hypothesis, describing experiences, comparing alternatives, and
evaluating and agreeing a solution. 5.
Sharing personal experience These tasks give learners opportunity to talk freely about themselves or their
experiences. The result will be closer to social conversation. 6.
Creative task Creative tasks are often called project. These tasks involve pair or groups of
learners in some kind of creative work. They also tend to have more stages than other tasks and can involve combinations of task types.
2.1.4.2 Task Based Learning for Children
As has been mentioned in previous sub-chapter, children have
characteristics to be considered in selecting or creating task. Types of task are important for children. They do not have personal long-term motivation. Tasks for
children should be able to gain both confidence and satisfaction. Children need activities that can stimulate interest and involvement, since they may learn
something while doing the activity. As a matter of fact, many of the tasks and activities suggested for adult learners can be adapted for use with children. There
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is also a wonderful variety of games, action songs, and practical creative tasks that are less suitable for adult learners.
Willis 1996 argues that children are often less self-conscious and less anxious about beginning to learn new language. She adds that children are used to
making sense of things without understanding everything. As has been mentioned before, Susan Halliwell 1992 argues that they have very good memories and are
good at imitating. She adds that children enjoy playing games, singing, hearing stories and do not get fatigue by repetition, such as playing the same games or
hearing the same stories. They are often more used to activity-based learning. In this study the activities would be in the form of tasks.
The first priorities are children need relevant amount of comprehensible exposure to the new task with familiar and clear objectives. As has been stated in
the silent period hypothesis, even though children are keen on playing games, singing a song, or listening to a story, it will take longer time until they start
speaking the target language. As long as children participate in the activities it means they are increasing their vocabulary and beginning to acquire language
naturally. Children enjoy making things, drawing and colouring, practicing magic
tricks, preparing snacks, and doing simple science experiments. According to Willis, 1996 if the instructions are available only in target language, and
necessary materials can only be obtained if they ask in target language, such activities stimulate a natural need to understand and use it. She also offers three
sets of activities.
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1 Listen-and-do-activities This set does not necessarily involve language production, but provide
incentives for listening and trying to understand as much as possible. This involves physical response such as games, story telling, colouring, drawing,
and miming. 2 Classifying
This set, have the children to name object, pictures, or shapes, and short them into set. There are several choices of activities such as collecting games,
matching games, memory games, and traditional games. 3 Puzzle
This could be verbal hide and seek and modelling. Having some proponents of tasks in Task-Based language learning, the
writer would like to adapt, combine, and employ some tasks by Pattison, Phrabu, and Willis in the designed materials. The chosen task is tasks which are suitable
for children of Domby characteristic and need.
2.1.4.2 Role of Teacher, Learners, and Materials
Willis 1996 describes the roles of learners, teachers, and materials as follow.
a. Teachers’ Roles In TBL, the teachers’ role changes from manager, controller, or instructor
to being a facilitator or partner of learning. Willis 1996 argues that as facilitator, teachers’ role is always keeping the key conditions for learning in mind.
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Facilitating learning involves balancing the amount of exposure and use of language, and ensuring they are both of suitable quality.
As the core unit in TBL is tasks, the teachers should be involved in setting tasks up, ensuring learners understand and get on with them, drawing them to a
close. In a broader sense, the teachers are the course guide. The teachers explain the overall objectives of the course and how the components of the task
framework can achieve these to the students. The part the teachers play during the task framework also varies according
to its aim. When the learners need proper tasks that can challenge and interest them, teachers are creator of the task with suitable instructions for the learners.
Whereas, when the focus turns to language form, the teachers act as language guides. When in the tasks stage, the teachers act as monitor and as chairperson
when it is in the report stage. b. Students’ Roles
In TBL framework, most of the emphases are on learners doing things. Learners are whom the tasks are created for. They do the tasks individually, in
pairs or in groups. The tasks are done by using language to achieve the task outcomes and guide by the teachers.
Therefore, the learners’ role is as participants. The participant will also be the tasks taker and innovator. In
completing the tasks, they will make their own understanding about the new materials.
The learners are also as active language users and language learners. As language learners, the learners need to pay attention to input they receive. They
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try to memorize and understand the input. The learning process takes place when the learners completing the tasks. When the learners try to complete the tasks,
they have opportunities to use the language. Hence, the learners play role as active language user.
c. The Roles of Materials The learners perceive materials as vehicle for self expression Willis,
1996. Since through the content which full of input, whenever the learners express something they are learning the target language. Thus, the materials are
vehicle which promote learners’ language learning.
2.1.5 Domby Kids’ Hope Curriculum
According to the Domby Kid’s Hope 2 coordinator, Domby Kid’s Hope 2 does not have curriculum to align the English teaching-learning activity in Domby
Kid’s Hope . They added that the goal of the English teaching-learning activities
generally is to make the learners like English and brave to speak in English. The English tutors at Domby Kid’s Hope 2 have freedom in choosing appropriate and
innovative approach or method to teach based on the goal. The coordinator also added something to be noted that Domby Kids Hope
2 aims to develop the children holistically. Holistic learning is different from
memorization. According to Young 2006, “holistic learning is the process of weaving the knowledge you are learning into everything you already understand”.
As has been mentioned in http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiholistic_education.com Robin Ann Martin 2003 describes further by stating, “At its most general level,
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what distinguishes holistic education from other forms of education are its goals, its attention to experiential learning, and the significance that it places on
relationships and primary human values within the learning environment.” Thus, the character building is one of the focuses of Domby Kids Hope 2. In considering
curriculum using a holistic approach, the tutors should pay attention to several things. According to http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiholistic_education.com, since
holistic education seeks to educate the whole person, there are some key factors that are essential to this type of education:
1. Children need to learn about themselves. This involves learning self respect and self esteem.
2. Children need to learn about relationships. In learning about their relationships with others, there is a focus on social “literacy” learning to see
social influence and emotional “literacy” one’s own self in relation to others.
3. Children need to learn about resilience. This entails overcoming difficulties, facing challenges and learning how to ensure long-term success.
4. Children need to learn about aesthetics. This encourages the student to see the beauty of what is around them and learn to have awe in life.
The goal and holistic learning becomes the guidelines of the English teaching-learning activities. Therefore, the English tutors should have effective
teaching-learning method that is suitable to the children and become creative to create teaching-learning activities not only to achieve the goal but also could
develop the children’s characters.
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2.1.6 Syllabus Design
Syllabus is also an essential part in this study. Its importance leads us to the next step, which is designing syllabus. Before deciding syllabus used in the
thesis, the writer would like to explain the definition of syllabus, so there would be no misconception afterwards. According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 80,
a syllabus is a document which states what will or at least what should be learnt. Nunan 1988: 3 also states that syllabus as a statement of content which is used
as the basis for planning courses of various kinds, and that the task of the syllabus designer is to select and grade this content. He also adds 1988: 159 that syllabus
as a specification of what is to be taught in a language program and the other in which it is to be taught. A syllabus may contain all or any of the following:
phonology, grammar, functions, notions, topics, theme, and tasks. There are three kinds of syllabus that are proposed by Nunan 1988: 42.
Since this study is intended to design materials that are needed and appropriate to children of Domby, the writer adapts the second type of syllabus, task-based
syllabus. In setting the syllabus up, the teachers should consider the two types of task proposed by Nunan. There are real world task and pedagogical task. Real
world task are important as they are likely to encounter the real world setting. Meanwhile, pedagogical task are designed for the sake of learners’ learning and
may not necessarily be significant when applied in real world use Nunan, 1988: 47.
Using task as core for a TBL syllabus there must be weak and strong form. Skehan 1996 assumes strong and weak forms of tasks which be a sound
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guideline for syllabus designer in designing Task based syllabus. A strong form of tasks argues that tasks should be central unit of language teaching and everything
become supplementary. Completing the tasks would be enough to develop learners’ L2 competence. A weak form is embedded in a more complex pedagogic
context.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
In the theoretical description previously, the writer mentions several things to be considered in designing her materials. The writer chooses to adopt Kemp’s
instructional design model to compose a set of instructional materials to teach English for the first grade of Domby Yogjakarta because it is flexible and
comprehensible. The writer considers Kemp’s instructional designed model is complete enough to designed good and relevant designed materials for Domby. In
applying Kemp’s instructional designed model, the writer also has to put Task based learning, teaching English in Elementary school, condition for language
learning, and syllabus into consideration. Therefore, the designed materials are designed by conducting the following steps. However, since Kemp’s model is
flexible, the following order do not mean obligatory.
1. Figure out the learners’ characteristics
Before designing the materials, the writer should gather information about learners’ characteristic. The writer obtains information about learners’ academic
factors, social factors, learning conditions, and learning style through observation
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and interview. The information about learners’ characteristic enables the writer figure out the learners need, interest, and wants.
2. Consider the necessary support service
The writer conducts observation and interview to find out facilities that are needed to support the learning activities.
3. Conduct pre-assessment
To have relevant objectives, the writer needs to find out learners’ background knowledge and proficiency level trough need analysis observation
and interview.
4. Formulating the Goal, Listing the Topics, and Formulating the General Purpose
In this step, the writer states the goal, lists the topics, and formulates the general purposes. By considering the learners’ characteristic, the writer decides
what the writer wants to contribute to solve the problem and fulfill the need, what the children need to learn, and why the children need to learn those topics.
5. Specifying the learning objectives
The third step is specifying the learning objective. The writer has to decide what the children could do or say if they could follow and understand the
materials.
6. Listing the Subject Contents
In the forth step, the writer lists the subject contents by considering the learning objectives.
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7. Selecting teachinglearning activities and resource
This step is where the writer in decides what teaching-learning activities best applied for children in Domby.
8. Conducting evaluation survey
To design valid and effective materials for Domby, the writer needs to conduct evaluation survey. The writer has to try out the designed materials and
distribute the designed materials to people who will use them and also to experts, in order to gain feedback which would be useful for the materials validation. The
feedback from the evaluation survey is used to improve and revise the designed materials.
The writer’s theoretical framework steps figure is presented in Figure 2.4.
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Figure 2.4: The Writer’s Framework
Figure Out the Learners’ Characteristics
Consider the Necessary Support Service
Conduct Pre-assessment
Formulating the Goals, Listing the Topics and General Purposes
Specifying the Learning Objectives
Listing the Subject Content
Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Resources
Conducting Evaluation Survey
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41
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
This chapter spells out how the research was conducted in order to attain answers to the research questions in the first chapter. This chapter is divided into
six parts. They are research method, research participants, research instruments, data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure.
3.1 Research Method
The purpose of this study is to answer the research questions stated in the first chapter. First, it should answer how a set of instructional material using Task-
based learning to teach English in Domby Kid’s Hope 2 is designed. Second, it is to answer what the materials look like.
Kemp’s steps that have been explained earlier specify the information required for developing the designed materials. However, to develop an
educational product, the writer needed to put Kemp’s steps in ideal order. Therefore, the writer employed educational research and development R D as
the strategy. According to Borg and Gall 1983: 772, R D is a process used to
develop and validate an educational product. They add that the goal of R D is to take this research knowledge and incorporate it into a product that can be used in
the schools Borg Gall, 1983: 771. R D takes the findings generated by basic research and applied research, and uses them to build tested product that are
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